,1 


i'. 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

656.3 

C95elQ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/electricvehiclehOOcush 


(lOTH  ANNUAL  EDITION) 


The 

Electric  Vehicle 
Hand-Book 


A practical  guide  for  the  operation  and 
maintenance  of  Electric  Vehicles,  Trucks 
and  Tractors,  their  Storage  Batteries,  Mo- 
tors, Controllers,  Tires  and  Accessories 
with  a Special  Section  on  the  Comparative 
Cost  of  Operation  of  Electric,  Gas  and 
Horse-Drawn  Trucks. 


BY 


h/^/cUSHING,  Jr. 

i • 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electricax, 
Engineers.  Author  and  Publisher  of  “Standard 
Wiring”  and  “The  Central  Static^’  ” 


Published  by 

H.  C.  Cushing,  Jr.,  8 West  40th  Stbe*!* 
New  York,  N.  Y. 


Copyright,  1922 
by 

H.  C.  Cushing,  Jr. 


\ 


. A vno  \ ^ ^ ® 


(p56,3 

d^  3 <H-)C)  (J||^V^J,^PJ7J^  f 

LOOKING  FORWARD  TO  THE  FUTURE 
OF  THE  ELECTRIC 


'Z 

ci 


A sane  and  consistent  development  of  the  Electric 
truck  for  urban  transportation,  the  field 
in  which  it  is  supreme,  will  mean  the 
extinction  of  the  horse  and  a 
hard  fight  for  the  gasoline 
truck  to  compete 

With  a growing  appreciation  of  the  service 
achievements  and  possibilities  of  the  electric 
truck  we  are  facing  a new  era.  Henceforth  we 
may  look  for  a sane  and  consistent  development 
with  the  electric  truck  occupying  the  field  in 
which  it  is  supreme,  where  its  usefulness  is  prac- 
tically unlimited  and  its  possibilities  greatest. 
That  field  is  urban  transportation,  and  the  place 
where  it  is  densest  is  in  New  York  City. 

While  over  half  of  the  electric  trucks  of  the 
country  are  being  operated  in  the  New  York 
district,  it  is  significant  as  emphasizing  the 
economy  and  reliability  of  electrically  propelled 
vehicles,  that  their  use  is  also  increasing  greatly 
in  cities  like  Chicago,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Cleveland  and  Detroit.  Last  year  the  increase 
in  New  York  City  alone  was  over  400  per  cent, 
and  with  the  vast  improvements  in  contempla- 
tion with  reference  to  traffic  congestion  and  port 
development  which  must  be  brought  about  very 
soon,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  \vhy  that  per- 
centage shall  not  only  be  increased  but  also 
maintained  for  many  years  to  come. 

53058 7 • 


Actual  service  achievements  are  convincing  the 
business  world,  slowly  perhaps,  but  none  the  less 
surely,  that  the  electric  truck  of  today  is  a prac- 
tical and  economical  car  capable  of  meeting  every 
demand  of  modern  business.  In  no  feature  from 
top  to  botom  does  it  lack  in  any  degree  the  es- 
sentials of  adaptability,  stability  and  strength. 
On  such  matters  we  have  the  irrefutable  testi- 
mony of  persons  who  have  used  electric  vehicles 
for  over  twenty  years  and  to  any  reasonable 
person  such  testimony  must  carry  conviction. 

When  one  considers  that  there  are  few  cities 
in  the  country  in  which  a large  part  of  the  freight 
and  package  transportation  cannot  be  carried  by 
the  electric  truck  with  great  advantage  to  the 
user,  the  public  and  the  power  companies,  the 
question  naturally  arises  “Why  are  not  more 
electric  trucks  used?’’ 

Is  it  because  they  are  inefficient? 

No!  Tests  show  them  to  be  more  efficient 
than  the  horse-drawn  or  gasoline-driven  truck. 

Is  it  because  they  do  not  give  satisfaction? 

No!  Experience  shows  that  the  greatest  pur- 
chasers of  electric  trucks  are  those  who  already 
have  them  in  operation. 

Is  it  because  of  excessive  repairs  and  upkeep? 

Most  assuredly  not,  for  it  is  just  in  low  up- 
keep and  insignificant  repairs  that  the  electric 
vehicles  excel  all  others. 

Are  they  unreliable? 

Hardly,  since  the  most  conservative  business 
organizations  in  the  city  including  the  express 


4 


Companies  and  others  to  whom  reliability  of 
transportation  is  of  very  vital  importance  are 
the  greatest  users  of  electrics. 

Are  they  intricate? 

Quite  the  contrary ; the}^  are  so  simple  that 
a child  can  operate  them. 

Are  they  more  expensive? 

Not  exactly;  for  while  the  first  cost  may  be 
higher  the  ultimate  cost  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  life  and  upkeep  of  the  truck,  is  less  than 
that  of  the  gasoline  truck. 

Why  then  are  not  more  of  them  used? 

Because  they,  are  not  being  properly  sold. 

Public  opinion  on  the  electric  vehicle  is  a 
blank — there  is  none.  Yet  public  opinion  will 
do  more  than  manufacturer,  user  or  power  com- 
pany can  do  to  bring  about  that  improvement 
in  traffic  conditions  and  freight  and  package 
transportation  which  is  the  need  of  the  hour, 
particularly  in  the  large  cities. 

There  are  some  who  have  doubts  about  the 
fairness  of  the  public,  and  yet  we  have  an  abiding 
faith  that  once  we  get  before  the  people  the  basic 
facts  of  this  business  and  the  inherent  advantages 
of  the  electric  vehicle  and  its  capabilities  they 
will  endeavor  to  do  the  wise  thing,  and  are  very 
apt  to  do  the  direct  and  very  wholesome  thing. 
We  must  therefore  reach  the  people  so  that  a 
properly  informed  and  enlightened  public  opin- 
ion may  move  in  the  direction  of  our  civic  well 
being. 

And  when  we  speak  of  the  public,  we  mean 


5 


the  man  in  the  street  who  is  accustomed  to  deal 
in  easy  and  familiar  terms,  and  to  whom  facts 
must  be  presented  in  a form  he  can  understand 
without  much  mental  effort  on  his  part.  He  re- 
cognizes the  superior  advantages  of  the  electric 
light.  He  is  familiar  with  the  merits  of  the  elec- 
tric vacuum  cleaner  and  the  electric  washing  ma- 
chine. He  even  appreciates  that  he  can  cook 
with  electricity  if  he  so  desires;  but  when  it 
comes  to  the  truck,  the  rattle  and  clatter  of  the 
gasoline  vehicle  impress  him  more  than  the  quiet 
reserve  and  staying  qualities  of  the  electric.  The 
thing  to  do  then  is  to  commercialize  the  product 
and  put  behind  it  the  requisite  energy,  force  and 
financial  support  to  cause  the  public  to  view  the 
electric  truck  as  it  ought  to  be  viewed, — an 
economic  necessity. 

Of  all  motor-driven  trucks,  those  electrically- 
driven  have  proven  themselves  best  suited  in 
every  respect  to  supersede  horse  traction  in  city 
delivery  service.  The  speed  of  the  electric  is 
double  or  treble  that  of  horses  with  equal  loads. 
It  is  self-starting  and  is  easily  controlled.  The 
vehicle  has  a short  wheelbase  so  that  it  takes 
up  less  space  than  any  other  vehicle  on  the  public 
highways  and  in  garages.  It  is  clean,  sanitary 
and  has  no  fire  risks.  Operating  within  a radium 
of  ten  miles,  which  embraces  most  of  the  truck- 
ing of  department  stores,  express  companies  and 
others,  with  frequent  stopping  and  starting  the 
electric  vehicle  is  supreme. 

These  are  not  mere  conjectures,  or  the  glorified 


6 


claims  of  manufacturers,  they  are  the  testimony 
of  people  of  experience, — of  persons  who  know 
because  they  have  used  and  are  still  using  electric 
trucks.  This  is  what  some  of  them  say : 

We  have  been  using  electric  vehicles  since 
1899  and  find  them  to  be  the  most  serviceable 
and  economical  delivery  cars  for  our  line  of  busi- 
ness.— :The  Gorham  Company. 

We  get  much  better  service  from  electric 
trucks  than  we  do  from  gasoline,  with  a reduced 
package  delivery  cost. — Bonwit  Teller  & Co. 

The  maintenance  cost  of  the  electric  is  easily 
over  50  per  cent,  less  than  the  gas  truck  and  we 
obtain  more  days  of  service  per  year  from  our 
electric  trucks  with  greater  reliability. — Hecker- 
Jones-Jewell  Milling  Co. 

Electrics  are  more  servicable  and  far  more 
efficient  and  econqmical  than  horses.  They  serve 
our  purpose  better  than  any  other  type  of  ve- 
hicle.— Whitlock  Cordage  Company. 

Our  experience  for  the  past  15  years  with  the 
electric  truck  has  convinced  us  that  it  is  the 
most  dependable  and  economical  method  of  trans- 
portation.— Horn  & Hardart  Co. 

We  have  been  using  electric  vans  since  1911 
and  have  found  them  most  dependable.  For  city 
work  they  are  a great  deal  more  economical  than 
gas  cars. — Manhattan  Storage  & Warehouse 
Company. 

We  have  been  using  electric  vehicles  in  our 
trucking  service  for  the  past  five  years  and  have 
obtained  excellent  results  from  them. — Bush. 


7 


The  greatest  single  user  of  electric  vehicles  in 
the  world  is  the  American  Railway  Express  Com- 
pany, which  has  in  operation  in  twenty-three 
cities  1,444  electrics.  The  general  superintendent 
of  motor  vehicle  ecjuipment  has  this  to  say  of 
them. 

''From  our  experience  and  observation  v;e  are 
firmly  convinced  that  in  its  particular  field  the 
electric  is  the  most  economical,  reliable  and  ef- 
ficient vehicle  in  operation  today.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  where  the  truck  is  operated  in 
service  where  the  hauls  are  short,  stops  frequent 
and  freight  abundant;  because  they  are  so  easy 
to  control,  they  are  extremely  simple,  their  ac- 
tion is  positive  while  in  motion  and  they  require 
absolutely  nothing  while  standing.'' 

ELECTRIC  TRUCKS  PURCHASED 
BY 

AMERICAN  RAILWAY  EXPRESS  COMPANY 


Year  Number 

1908  I 

1911  51 

1912  283 

1913  96 

1914  14 

1915  93 

1916  202 

1917  122 

1918  75 

1919  54 

1920  30 

1921  39 

1922  123 

Street  trucks  ii94 

Industrial  trucks  250 

Total  1444 


Statements  like  these  are  invaluable  assets  of 
the  electric,  and  indicate  more  than  anything  else 


8 


their  growing  popularity  and  serviceability.  Sim- 
ilar testimony  can  be  obtained  from  users  in 
other  cities  where  after  years  of  experience  and 
careful  detailed  study,  the  supremacy  of  the  elec- 
tric for  all  city  work  is  admitted. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  all  of  the  large 
electric  light  and  power  companies  of  the  country 
are  favorably  disposed  toward  the  electric,  one 
would  hardly  expect  them  to  be  otherwise  con- 
sidering the  income  derivable  from  battery-charg- 
ing service.  They  are  moreover  rather  liberal 
supporters  and  believers  in  electric  vehicle  de- 
velopment. Many  companies  maintain  electric 
vehicle  bureaus  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the 
growth  of  this  form  of  transportation  and  ren- 
dering full  and  complete  service.  It  is  only 
recently  that  the  power  companies  in  New  York, 
Newark  and  Chicago  gave  over  a large  part  of 
their  showroom  space  for  electrical  vehicle 
shows.  Cooperation  of  this  kind  is  very  real  and 
effective  and  as  a result  it  is  expected  that  five 
times  as  many  electrical  vehicle  shows  will  be 
held  next  year. 

The  outlook  is,  therefore,  most  promising  and 
especially  in  New  York  City.  We  have  here  a 
great  city,  the  greatest  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere with  the  finest  harbor  and  with  more  in- 
dustries than  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Cleveland 
and  St.  Louis  combined.  But  no  city  in  the  world 
has  so  much  traffic  congestion,  and  few  ports 
have  such  abominable  terminal  facilities. 
Whether  you  realize  it  or  not,  the  fact  remains 


that  we  have  either  got  to  get  rid  of  this  traffic 
congestion  or  it  will  get  rid  of  us,  and  we  have 
got  to  improve  our  port  facilities  or  give  up  our 
position  of  shipping  dominance  on  this  conti- 
nent. The  cost  of  delivery  from  railroad  ter- 
minals to  the  consumer  is  generally  much  greater 
than  the  entire  freight  cost  from  factory  to  ter- 
minal, because  our  streets  are  so  congested  with 
pleasure  cars  and  slow-moving  horse-drawn 
trucks  that*  rapid  delivery  service  is  out  of  the 
question.  We  cart  through  the  city  every  year 
hundreds  of  millions  of  tons  of  freight  and  it  is 
only  because  under  the  present  system  of  freight 
rates  the  charge  for  terminal  operations  is  com- 
bined with  the  rest  of  the  charges  for  freight 
transportation  that  the  great  burden  imposed  on 
the  public  has  been  more  or  less  concealed  and 
not  generally  understood.  Otherwise  much 
needed  improvement  in  terminal  operating  effi- 
ciency would  have  been  stimulated  and  most 
likely  considered  imperative  long  ago. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  to  go  into  the  subject 
of  freight  terminals.  Our  existing  freight  sta- 
tions were  built  many  years  ago  and  their  ar- 
rangement is  such  as  to  prevent  the  effective  ap- 
plication of  labor-saving  machinery.  For  that 
reason  the  hand  truck  still  predominates  and 
will  predominate  until  our  system  of  handling 
freight  at  terminals  in  New  York  is  radically 
changed.  When  that  time  comes  we  shall  see 
an  almost  universal  use  of  electric  tractors  with 
or  without  trailers. 


10 


It  is  in  the  hauling  of  packages  and  freight 
through  any  city  that  the  great  field  of  the  elec- 
trick  truck  lies  and  that  field,  economically 
speaking,  has  hardly  been  touched.  While  the 
hauling  distance  is  usually  considered  to  in- 
fluence the  cost  of  a movement  most,  long  hauls 
may  be  less  expensive  than  short  ones  if  the 
latter  must  be  made  under  the  adverse  conditions 
which  prevail  in  the  heart  of  the  business  sec- 
tion. 

The  distance  freight  is  moved  is  not  a true 
measure  of  the  operating  cost,  the  time  required 
to  move  freight  a given  distance  is  the  deter- 
mining factor.  Therefore,  conditions  which  in- 
crease the  time  required  in  delivering  freight  in- 
crease the  cost  and  this  is  almost  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  time  lost.  Various  plans  for  con- 
serving time  in  handling  miscellaneous  packages 
and  freight  have  been  proposed.  These  involve 
the  use  of  standard  containers  or  elevated  plat- 
forms which  keep  all  freight  in  ambulant  con- 
dition, easily  under  power  control,  thereby  in- 
suring minimum  time-consuming  movements. 
By.  this  method  alone  the  demand  for  motor 
equipment  for  cranes  and  for  electric  trucks  to 
facilitate  transportation  from  terminal  to  desti- 
nation will  be  very  large.  It  is  not  always  ap- 
preciated that  every  time  a package  is  lifted  or 
delivered  something  is  added  to  the  cost. 

Even  though  congestion  at  freight  terminals 
is  relieved  and  the  port  facilities  greatly  im- 
proved, the  problem  of  street  congestion  still 
n 


remains;  because  we  clutter  up  our  streets  with 
parked  pleasure  cars  or  trucks,  we  back  trucks 
in  against  the  curb,  thus  impeding  traffic  or 
worse  still,  back  them  in  against  plat- 
forms on  the  sidewalk  impeding  not  only  the 
roadway  but  the  walkway.  Moreover,  we  still 
permit  slow-moving  horse-drawn  trucks  to  re- 
tard the  passage  of  faster  moving  motor  trucks. 
Where  electric  trucks  are  used  there  is  relatively 
little  confusion  and  congestion  because  they  are 
self-starting,  occupy  a minimum  of  space  and 
possess  marked  ability  in  winding  in  and  out  of 
traffic,  and  while  this  is  an  advantage  not  pos- 
sessed by  other  vehicles,  the  ultimate  solution 
of  the  congestion  problem,  granting  proper  regu- 
lation of  traffic  on  the  streets,  is  to  be  found  in 
some  sort  of  contained  delivery,  whereby  the 
truck  will  simply  deposit  the  container  with  its 
load,  presuming  of  course  that  the  load  is  big 
enough  and  move  on  just  as  is  now  being  done 
on  a smaller  scale  with  the  storage  battery 
tractors  equipped  with  elevating  platforms.  In 
this  way  maximum  use  is  made  of  the  investment 
in  the  truck  and  the  labor  cost  per  ton  delivered 
is  a minimum.  Now  the  electric  is  the  only  type 
of  vehicle  which  will  permit  of  freight  movement 
in  this  way  and  when  once  such  a plan  is  carried 
out  thereby  insuring  minimum  time  consuming 
movements  so  far  as  trucking  is  concerned,  the 
horse  will  quickly  disappear  from  the  streets  and 
the  gasoline  truck  will  have  to  fight  hard  to  main- 
tain its  existence  in  city  delivery  service, 


13 


CHAPTER  II. 


LEAD  STORAGE  BATTERIES, 
DESCRIPTION. 

The  stoi;age  battery  is  the  part  of  the  electric 
vehicle  which  holds  the  energy  necessary  for  pro- 
pulsion. It  is  the  heart  of  the  vehicle  and  so  should 
receive  proper  care  and  attention.  It  consists  of  a 
number  of  cells  or  units  grouped  in  trays  accord- 
ing to  the  size  and  character  of  the  vehicle.  Each 
''ceir’  consists  of  a jar  containing  a number  of 
plates  properly  connected,  spaced  with  separators 
and  immersed  in  a solution  or  electrolyte. 

There  are  two  classes  of  storage  batteries  en- 
joying commercial  representation.  These  are,  the 
lead-sulphuric-acid  and  nickel-iron-alkaline  cells.  A 
description  of  each  of  these  important  divisions  will 
be  given  in  order  that  the  instructions  covering 
their  care  and  operation  may  be  more  easily  and 
fully  understood. 

Historically  the  lead  battery  is  the  oldest 
form  of  storage  cell  used  to  any  extent  for  vehicle 
service.  The  nsOine  lead-acid  battery  is  given  be- 
cause the  plates  of  the  cells  are  made  of  lead  and 
the  solution  is  sulphuric-acid  and  water. 

The  plates  of  a lead  battery  are  of  two  kinds, 
positive  (+)  and  negative  ( — ),  Figs,  i and  2, 
arranged  alternately  in  the  cell,  there  usually  being 
an  excess  of  one  negative  plate  so  that  all  surfaces 
of  the  positive  plates  may  be  active.  The  plates  of 


13 


batteries  used  in  vehicle  service  are  of  two  general 
sizes,  4%"  X 8^"  or  5^"  x 8fi"  and  from 


Fig.  1 — Positive  Plate.  Fig.  2 — Negative  Plate. 


10  in  thickness,  depending  upon  the  require- 
ments as  explained  later.  By  means  of  lead  con- 
necting straps  (Fig.  3)  all  the  positive  plates  in 
each  cell  are  joined  into  what  is  known  as  a positive 
group;  all  the  negative  plates  similarly  into  a nega- 


Fig.  3 — Pillar  Strap. 
14 


Fig.  5 — Element  Assembled  with  Pillar  Straps. 


15 


nve  group.  These  two  groups,  with  the  separators 
(Fig.  4)  for  keeping  the  positive  plates  from  mak- 
ing contact  with  the  negative  plates,  form  an  element 
(Fig.  5).  A hard  rubber  /or  contains  this  element, 


Fig.  6 — Cell,  Assembled. 


immersed  in  a solution  of  sulphuric  acid  called 
electrolyte,  the  complete  unit  being  called  a cell 
(Fig.  6).  A hard  rubber  cover  is  usually  sealed 
over  the  top  of  the  cell  to  reduce  evaporation  and 


Spraying.  I'he  sealing  compound  is  easily  applied 
or  removed  when  slightly  heated. 

Ihe  connecting  straps,  besides  connecting  the 
plates  of  a group,  have  a pole  or  terminal,  extend- 
ing slightly  above  the  top  of  the  jar,  so  that  the 
positive  group  of  one  cell  may  be  connected  to  the 
negative,  group  of  the  next  cell  by  a lead  connector 

(Fig-  7)- 

By  connecting  the  negative  pole  of  each  cell  to 
the  positive  pole  of  the  next,  the  cells  are  said  to 
be  connected  in  series;  all  Positives  together  and 
all  Negatives  together,  respectively,  ''in  parallel.” 
If  the  total  number  of  cells  is  divided  into  two  or 
more  parts,  of  cells  in  series,  and  the  divisions  to- 
gether in  parallel  then  the  connection  is.  said  to  be 
"series-parallel.”  In  vehicle  practice,  the  series 
grouping  is  used  with  very  few  exceptions. 

A storage  battery  does  not  store  electrical  energy 
but  holds  the  energy  chemically.  The  electrical 
power  produces  chemical  changes  in  the  cells  which 
are  known  as  charging,  and  when  the  chemical  en- 
ergy is  converted  to  electrical  energy,  then  the  reac-  * 
tions  taking  place  in  the  cell  are  called  discharging. 
These  phenomena  are  very  interesting  and  explain 
not  only  the  reasons  for  the  details  of  construction 
but  the  method  of  operation  most  conducive  to  satis- 
factory and  efficient  results. 

When  the  battery  is  said  to  be  charged  then  the 
lead  of  the  positive  plate  is  of  chocolate  brown  color 
and  is  called  lead  peroxide  while  the  negative  plate 
IS  gray  colored  and  consists  of  metallic  lead  in  a 
form  called  spongy  lead.  This  action  is  caused  by 


17 


the  passage  of  current  from  the  positive  to  the  nega 
tive  plate  through  the  electrolyte.  When  the  cur- 
rent is  reversed  by  connecting  the  positive  and 
negative  poles  through  external  resistance  then  the 
reaction  known  as  discharge  takes  place,  and  the 
lead  peroxide  of  the  positive  plate  is  converted  to 
lead -sulphate  of  lighter  brown  color  and  the  nega- 
tive plate  from  spongy  lead  to  lead  sulphate,  light 
slate  in  color.  Pure  lead  sulphate  is  white,  but  as 
it  is  mixed  with  the  lead  peroxide  and  sponge  lead, 
in  the  plates  according  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
reactions  of  charge  or  discharge  have  taken  place, 
the  color  of  the  plate  will  depend  on  how  far  the 
plate  has  been  charged  or  discharged.  In  other 
words,  the  more  the  discharge  the  lighter  the  color 
and  the  more  complete  the  charge  the  darker.  These 
colors,  however,  are  relative  and  give  definite  indi- 
cations only  to  those  experienced. 

The  action  described  above  takes  place  over  the 
surface  of  the  plates  and  extends  only  very  slightly 
within  when  sheets  of  lead  are  used  as  the  plates. 
•This  layer  or  film  of  chemically  active  lead  is  there- 
fore called  active  material.  During  that  part  of 
the  cycle  when  the  cell  is  discharged,  the  active 
material  consists  partially  of  lead  sulphate.  Sulpha- 
tion  is  the  normal  condition  of  the  plates  on  dis- 
charge and  is  caused  by  the  sulphuric  acid  going 
into  the  plates.  Inasmuch  as  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  electrolyte  decreases  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
crease of  sulphation  in  the  plates,  low  specific  gravi- 
ty is  the  indication  of  the  extent  of  sulphation  or 


18 


of  the  extent  of  discharge.  This  indication  is  very 
important  since  in  charging  when  the  sulphate  is 
removed  from  the  plates,  returned  to  the  electro- 
lyte, the  battery  is  charged  and  the  rise  in  specific 
gravity  shows  its  progress.  When  the  specific 
gravity  has  remained  stationary  for  some  time  then 
no  more  sulphate  is  being  transferred  to  the  solu- 
tion, the  useful  chemical  action  is  completed,  and 
the  charging  should  be  discontinued. 

Lead  sulphate  is  hard  so  that  a discharged  nega- 
tive feels  harder  than  a charged  one,  because  the 
surface  is  covered  with  it.  If  the  current  is  not 
supplied  long  enough  to  reduce  all  of  the  sulphate 
then  it  hardens  and  requires  still  more  current  to 
reduce  it  on  the  following  charge.  This  is  under- 
charging. If  the  plates  be  allowed  to  stand  long 
in  a discharged  condition,  then  the  hardening  of 
the  sulphate  requires  an  excessive  amount  of  charg- 
ing beyond  that  normally  needed,  or  overcharging, 
to  bring  the  plates  back  to  healthy  condition.  It  is 
necessary  to  do  this  as  the  pores  of  the  plate  would 
otherwise  be  clogged,  and  less  surface  be  useful. 

When  the  current  has  charged  the  plates  suffi- 
ciently  for  the  greater  part  of  lead  sulphate  to  be 
decomposed  then  the  further  passage  of  current  is 
spent  not  in  useful  chemical  action  (as  that  is  com- 
plete), but  in  breaking  up  the  electrolyte  into  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  gas.  When  thus  liberated  the  gase- 
ous particles  are  said  to  be  nascent,  and  are  par- 
ticularly violent  in  their  action.  They  are  formed 
during  the  entire  charge  and  act  on  the  sulphate 
The  action  of  the  hydrogen  reduces  the  sulphate 


19 


leaving  spongy  lead  on  the  negative  plate  and  the 
oxygen  oxidizes  the  sulphate  of  the  positive  plate 
to  lead  peroxide.  These  actions  being  completed, 
the  same  amount  of  current  continues  to  produce 
the  same  amount  of  gaseous  particles,  which,  find- 
ing no  sulphate  to  reduce  or  oxidize,  force  their 
way  through  the  active  material  and  out  of  the 
solution  as  gas.  The  more  violent  and  rapid  the 
gassing,  the  greater  is  the  tendency  for  small  par- 
ticles of  active  material  to  be  forced  off  of  the 
plate  surface  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell  as 
sediment.  As  the  coherence  of  the  positive  active 
material  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the  nega- 
tive, excessive  gassing  deteriorates  the  positive  plate 
most  rapidly.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
gassing  should  be  kept  a minimum  and  is  accom- 
plished by  reducing  the  current  gradually  until  the 
plates  are  fully  charged.  The  values  of  current  used 
in  charging  are  called  charging  rates  and  those  in 
discharge,  discharge  rates.  They  will  be  explained 
in  detail  on  page  25. 

The  discussion  in  the  preceding  lines  assumed 
only  two  lead  sheets  as  plates  to  begin  with.  In 
vehicle  service,  however,  a minimum  of  weight  with 
a maximum  of  capacity  during  life  is  a very  import- 
ant feature,  so  that  instead  of  making  use  of  only 
a thin  layer  of  active  material  on  a thick  sheet  of 
lead  which  is  inherently  heavy,  the  active  material 
is  formed  chemically  and  firmly  pressed  into  a light 
but  strong  network  or  frame  of  lead  alloy.  This 
frame  or  grid  (Fig.  8),  is  characterized  by  the 
necessity  for  strength  to  hold  the  greatest  amount 


20 


of  active  material  firmly  in  the  least  space  and  to 
withstand  the  stresses  of  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion as  well  as  to  present  good  conductivity  to  the 
passage  of  the  electric  current.  This  type  of  plate, 
invented  by  Faure,  is  the  Parted  plate,  and  is  prac- 
tically standard  for  vehicle  use.  Both  positive  and 
negative  plates  are  made  in  this  manner. 


Fig.  8 — Positive  Grid. 


Negative  Grid. 


Another  form  of  positive  plate  is  one  having 
slotted  hard  rubber  tubes  as  the  containers  of  the 
active  material.  These  tubes  have  a cylindrical  lead 
alloy  core  fastened  to  the  grid  at  top  and  bottom 
and  are  surrounded  by  lead  peroxide  held  by  the 
casing  in  order  that  the  shedding  of  active  material 
may  be  reduced  and  the  effective  surface  increased. 

The  separators  which  correctly  space  the  plates 

31 


are  of  two  kinds,  thin  sheets  of  perforated  hard 
rubber  and  thin  ribbed  wood,  chemically  treated  to 
remove  injurious  impurities.  One  side  of  this  wood 
separator  is  flat,  pressing  against  the  negative  plate 
while  the  other  side  presses  the  rubber  sheet  against 
the  surface  of  the  positive  plate.  The  separators 
serve  the  purpose  of  allowing  circulation  of  the 
electrolyte  and  escape  of  gas,  while  preventing  con- 
tact of  the  plates  which  would  cause  a short  circuit 
in  the  cells.  Through  vibration,  the  separators  are 
liable  to  work  loose  and  float  up  from  the  bottom 
of  the  plates,  exposing  them  to  contact.  To  prevent 
this,  extensions  from  the  under  side  of  the  plate 
straps,  or  hard  rubber  blocks  are  made  use  of  m 
holding  the  separators  in  position. 

The  containing  jars  are  composed  of  hard  rub- 
ber compound,  of  dimensions  that  will  snugly  con- 
tain the  assembled  elements,  leaving  a space  of 
from  i"  to  3"  under  the  bottom  of  the  plates  to 
collect  sediment  and  about  ly^"  above  the  tops  of 
the  plates  to  allow  sufficient  height  of  electrolyte 
without  slopping  over.  The  tops  of  the  jars  are 
fitted  with  covers,  having  openings  for  adding  pure 
water  (to  replace  evaporation)  and  are  provided 
with  vent  plugs  to  allow  the  escape  of  gas.  These 
covers  are  generally  sealed  on  with  a compound  to 
avoid  sloppage,  reduce  evaporation  and  prevent 
introduction  of  foreign  material.  Two  supporting 
ribs  or  bridges  cast  integral  with  the  bottom  of  the 
jar,  are  provided  to  support  the  element  and  pro- 
vide space  for  the  collection  of  sediment  without 
allowing  it  to  come  in  contact  v/ith  the  plates. 


22 


A tray  (Fig.  9)  is  used  to  hold  a number  of 
cells  rigidly  in  the  vehicle  and  protect  the 
containing  jars  from  damage  as  well  as  admit  of 
convenient  handling  in  assembly  or  removal  from 
the  battery  compartment.  These  trays  are  built 


Tray,  Showing  Slatted  Bottom. 


Fig.  9 — Tray,  Showing  Cell  Assembly. 


of  hard  wood  treated  with  acid-resisting  paint. 
Handles  for  handling  and  connectors  for  making 
secure  connections  to  the  wiring  of  the  vehicle  arc 
placed  on  the  outside  of  the  tray  ends.  A name 


23 


plate  is  usually  attached  at  a conspicuous  point  foi 
ready  reference. 


Fig.  10 — Acid  Testing  Set. 


Fig.  11 — Hydrometer  Syringe. 


The  process  of  attaching  the  plates  to  the  con- 
necting straps  to  form  the  positive  and  negative 
groups,  and  the  connectors  to  the  poles,  is  known 
as  lead  burning  and  consists  in  the  application  of  a 
flame  of  sufficient  heat  to  weld  or  melt  the  lead 
parts  into  one.  This  is  similar  to  soldering,  except 
that  in  this  case  no  flux  is  used  and  the  flame  is 
applied  to  the  parts  directly.  For  temporary  re- 
pairs soldering  may  be  applied,  but  not  otherwise. 
This  process  is  described  in  detail  on  page  95. 


24 


The  specihc  gravity  or  relative  density  of  a solu- 
tion  is  determined  by  the  use  of  an  acid  testing 
set  (Fig.  lo)  or  a hydrometer  syringe  (Fig.  ii). 
The  hydrometer  syringe  is  most  convenient  as  it 
permits  a reading  of  specific  gravity  to  be  taken 
quickly  in  any  cell  of  the  battery.  The  syringe 
with  rubber  bulb  allows  electrolyte  to  be  withdrawn 
from  the  cell  into  the  tube  in  which  the  hydrometer 
floats.  The  hydrometer  reading  may  be  thus  ob- 
served, after  which  the  electrolyte  is  returned  to 
the  cell  without  spilling  or  contamination. 

CHARGE  AND  DISCHARGE  RATES. 

The  ‘'Charging  Rate''  is  the  current  measured 
in  amperes,  used  to  effect  the  chemical  changes  in 
the  cell  known  as  “Charging."  “Starting  Rate"  and 
“Finishing  Rate"  are  the  values  of  current  em- 
ployed at  the  beginning  and  finishing  periods. 

The  “Discharge  Rate"  is  the  value  of  current  in 
amperes  at  which  energy  is  furnished  by  the  bat- 
tery. This  rate  may  be  constant  for  a number  of 
hours  as  on  a laboratory  test  or  may  vary  con- 
siderably as  when  furnishing  current  to  the  motor. 
The  length  of  time  in  hours  during  which  the  bat- 
tery will  deliver  its  catalogue  discharge  rate  before 
reaching  1.7  volts  per  cell,  multiplied  by  the  dis- 
charge rate  in  amperes,  gives  the  "Discharge  Ca- 
pacity" of  the  battery  in  ampere-hours. 

In  charging,  since  the  storage  battery  is  not  100% 
efficient  in  operation,  it  is  necessary  to  add  from  5 
to  15%  more  ampere-hours  of  charge  than  are  re- 
covered in  ampere-hours  of  discharge.  As  it  is 
not  possible  to  charge  continuously  at  the  same 


25 


rate  as  that  at  which  the  battery  may  be  discharged, 
several  hours  more  are  needed  to  completely  charge 
than  are  required  to  discharge  ^t  the  catalogue  dis- 
charge rate.  The  catalogue  charge  and  discharge 
rate  established  by  the  manufacturers  are  neither 
maximum  nor  minrmum  values  for  the  cells  in  ques- 
tion but  average  or  moderate  figures  which  ex- 
perience and  test  have  ^hown  to  be  acceptable  for 
all  ordinary  variations  of  vehicle  service. 


26 


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21  315.0  70  56  22 

Note.  Initial  charge  applies  only  when  plates  are  received  undeveloped. 


GOULD  STORAGE  BATTERY  COMPANY 


I'o  rt  ^ X ^ 


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29 


224  48  40  16  26.5 

252  54  45  18  30.0 

280  60  50  20  33.0 

308  66  55  22  36.5 

336  72  60  24  40.0 


GOULD  STORAGE  BATTERY  COMPANY  (CONTINUED) 


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30 


Note. — Initial  charge  applies  only  when  plates  are  received  undeveloped. 


PHILADELPHIA  STORAGE 


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rH  rH  rH  CM  <04  04  CO  CO  CO  Ml  Ml 


rH  CO  lO  b-  05  rH  CO  IP  rH  CO  IP  05  rH  CO  I P I-  05  rH  CO  IP  05  rH 
rH  rH  iH  rH  »H  <^^  <04  <^4  iH  rH  iH  rH  rH  rH  rH  iH  <04  (04  04  <04  <04  CO 


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Note. — Initial  charge  applies  only  when  plates  are  received  undeveloped. 


TABLE  V. 

WILLARD  STORAGE  BATTERY  CGMPANT 


rx^ 


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siff-S 

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Note. — Initial  charge  applies  only  when  plates  are  received  undeveloped. 


CARE  OF  STORAGE  BATTERIES. 

General  Instructions 

APPLICABLE  TO  ALL  STORAGE  BAT- 
TERIES 

Considerable  may  be  and  has  been  written  on  the 
subj'ect  of  care  and  operation  of  storage  batteries 
and  the  whole  matter  may  be  summed  up  in  a few 
words  by  saying  the  few  things  that  it  is  necessary 
to  do  and  the  correct  times  for  doing  them.  There 
are  certain  requisites  in  the  care  which  cannot  be 
made  light  of  and  yet  which  require  a very  small 
amount  of  time.  In  the  operation  of  the  battery, 
proper  charging  is  of  first  consideration  since  the 
energy  taken  from  the  battery  must  be  replenished 
for  continued  operation. 

Charging.  In  charging  Storage  Batteries,  be  the 
make  or  design  what  it  may,  a direct  current  sup- 
ply must  be  used.  If  alternating  current  only  is 
available  then  means  must  be  had  for  transforming 
or  converting  it  into  direct  current.  This  is  a sub- 
ject which  has  received  careful  attention  by  the 
manufacturers  and  will  be  taken  up  in  detail  in 
Chapter  VI. 

The  common  practice  in  the  arrangement  of  elec- 
tric vehicle  batteries  for  charging  is  to  connect  all 
the  cells  in  series,  the  adjacent  positive  and  nega- 
tive poles  being  connected,  leaving  a positive  termi- 
nal (pole)  at  one  end  and  a negative  terminal  at 
the  other  unconnected.  These  are  connected  re- 
spectively to  the  positive  and  the  negative  wires  of 


37 


the  charging  circuit  in  order  that  the  charging  cur- 
rent may  be  forced  into  the  battery  through  each 
cell  in  the  same  and  correct  direction,  positive  plate 
to  negative  through  the  solution.  This  rule  can- 
not be  varied  as  injury  to  the  battery,  with  per- 
haps ruin,  will  follow.  The  procedure  just  described 
is  actually  taken  care  of  in  the  wiring  of  the  ve- 
hicle, as  received  from  the  manufacturer  so  that 
when  the  trays  are  installed  in  the  positions  indi- 
cated and  the  cells  of  one  tray  connected  in  series 
to  those  of  the  next,  it  remains  only  to  attach  the 
leads  of  the  vehicle  wiring  to  the  end  cells. 

These  are  carried  to  a charging  receptacle 
situated  on  the  frame  of  the  vehicle  con- 
venient of  access.  This  receptacle  is  constructed 
for  rigid  holding  of  the  charging  plug,  to  .which  are 
connected  the  wdres  from  the  charging  source.  The 
plugs  and  receptacles  used  at  present  are  relatively 
simple  and  serve  the  purpose  of  connecting  the 
charging  source  to  the  vehicle  battery,  preventing 
accidental  or  careless  contact  of  the  wires  of  op- 
posite polarity  which  would  cause  a short  circuit. 

At  the  present  time  the  different  forms  of  charg- 
ing plug  and  receptacle  supplied  by  the  individual 
manufacturers  of  electric  vehicles  necessitate  the 
public  garage  carrying  an  assortment  of  these  to 
handle  such  different  makes  of  vehicle  as  may  re- 
quire charging,  either  regularly  or  transient.  This 
inconvenience  is  obviated  by  the  use  of  the  charg- 
ing plug  adopted  as  standard  by  the  Electric  Ve- 
hicle Association  of  America. 

Automatic  means  for  regulating  the  charging 


38 


operation  are  widely  used  and  are  explained  In  tliei 
Chapter  on  “Charging  Apparatus/' 

Ventilation.  The  battery  should  be  ventilated 
as  much  as  possible  during  charging  to  carry  off 
the  gases  liberated,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  To  this 
end  the  battery  compartments  should  be  opened. 

Naked  Flame.  The  gases  liberated,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  will  combine  explosively  when  ignited, 
so  that  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the 
compartment  free  of  a naked  flame,  especially  while 
the  cells  are  gassing  or  immediately  thereafter.  An 
electric  light  should  always  be  used  for  inspection. 

Electrolyte.  Before  commencing  a charge,  the 
height  of  the  solution  should  be  adjusted  to  a level, 
Yj”  above  the  tops  of  the  plates,  using  distilled  wa- 
ter only  for  this  purpose,  never  electrolyte.  How 
often  it  will  be  necessary  to  add  water  will  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  charging,  but  will  be  about 
once  a week,  more  or  less.  Where  it  is  especially 
desired  to  use  water,  other  than  distilled,  it  is  best 
to  send  a one  quart  sample  to  the  manufacturer 
before  running  the  risk  of  ruining  the  battery  due 
to  impurities  in  the  water.  Electrolyte  should  only 
be  added  where  necessitated  by  sloppage  or  leak- 
age and  then  as  explained  in  detail  (page  73). 
Evaporation  removes  only  water  and  so  nothing  but 
water  should  be  added  to  compensate.  It  should 
be  stored  in  clean  carboys  which  have  been  used 
for  no  other  purpose  and  distinctly  labelled. 

Voltage.  The  voltage  required  at  the  Battery 
Terminals  in  order  to  force  the  current  through 


39 


the  battery  is  given  in  the  tables  on  pages  49  and 
131  for  batteries  of  a number  of  cells  of  both  lead 
and  nickel-iron  types. 

Inasmuch  as  voltage  during  charge  is  consider- 
ably higher  than  that  during  discharge,  the  lamps, 
bell,  signal  horn  or  other  such  devices  should  not 
be  left  on  or  operated  during  the  charging  opera- 
tions, as  the  increased  voltage  will  in  most  cases 
be  sufficient  to  burn  them  out.  These  devices  are 
designed  to  operate  during  the  discharge  only,  there 
being  practically  no  reason  for  their  use  at  other 
times. 

Temperature.  During  the  charging  or  discharg- 
ing operations,  described  below,  the  temperature  of 
the  battery  should  at  all  times  be  kept  below  110°  F. 
The  temperature  should  be  measured  in  those  cells 
near  the  center  of  the  battery  and  if  there  is  a 
tendency  to  overheat  the  charging  rate  should  be 
reduced  or  if  necessary  the  charging  discontinued 
until  the  temperature  has  fallen  below  the  allow- 
able limit.  Practically  no  difficulty  will  be  experi- 
enced during  discharge  except  under  most  extraor- 
dinary circumstances. 

Charging:  Manipulation.  Having  determined 
the  proper  charging  rate  and  the  length  of  time  for 
the  charge,  the  charging  apparatus  should  be  put  in 
position  for  the  beginning  of  the  charge,  with  all 
switches  open.  The  controller  is  then  placed  in 
the  off  position,  or  as  demanded  in  the  vehicle  in 
question,  some  controllers  having  a special  charg- 
ing position,  or  notch.  With  the  total  resistance  of 
the  rheostat  in  circuit,  the  charging  plug  is  placed 


40 


in  the  receptacle  and  the  switches  closed.  The  am- 
meter will  show  a low  value  of  current,  which  will 
increase  to  the  necessary  amount  as  the  rheostat 
handle  is  revolved.  As  the  charging  progresses  and 
the  current  either  increases  or  decreases  the  manip- 
ulation of  the  resistance  by  the  movement  of  the 
rheostat  handle  wilP  increase  or  decrease  the  charg- 
ing rate  as  desired.  Usually  a movement  of  the 
rheostat  to  the  right  increases  while  a movement 
to  the  left  decreases  the  current.  When  the  bat- 
tery is  fully  charged  the  operation  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  reverse  direction,  that  is,  put  all  the 
resistance  in,  decreasing  the  current,  by  moving 
back  the  rheostat  handle  before  opening  all  the 
switches  and  removing  the  charging  plug.  Making 
a rule  of  this  practice  will  avoid  short  circuits,  and 
burning  of  contacts. 

Discharging.  In  vehicle  batteries  the  discharg- 
ing of  the  cells  consists  in  allowing  the  current  to 
flow  in  the  reverse  direction  from  that  of  charge, 
through  a motor  which  converts  the  electrical  en- 
ergy into  mechanical  energy  for  motion.  The 
amount  of  current  supplied  to  the  motor  is  regu- 
lated by  the  controller  so  that  starting,  stopping, 
reversing  or  running  at  the  dififerent  speeds  may 
be  accomplished  with  little  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  driver  and  without  injury  to  the  motor,  bat- 
tery or  other  parts. 

Charging:  Out  of  the  Vehicle.  When  it  neces- 
sary either  for  test,  after  repairs,  or  with  reserve 
batteries  to  charge  them  out  of  the  vehicle  on  a 
bench,  then  the  operation,  familiarly  known  as  a 


41 


bench  charging  or  discharging,  is  identical  with  that 
described  for  the  battery  in  the  vehicle  in  nearly 
all  particulars.  It  admits  of  ready  access  to  each 
of  the  cells  during  the  entire  charge  and  discharge 
and  enables  the  operator  to  make  complete  and  full 
readings  of  voltage,  specific  gravity,  temperature 
and  such  other  inspection,  as  may  be  required,  upon 
each  cell  of  the  number.  As  this  treatment  can 
best  be  given  by  placing  the  battery  in  a garage 
where  the  necessary  apparatus  and  skill  is  to  be 
had,  the  details  will  be  given  in  section  II.,  page 
49,  devoted  to  garage  practice. 


42 


CHAPTER  III. 

CARE  OF  LEAD  STORAGE  BATTERIES. 

The  instructions  in  Part  I.  of  this  section  are 
intended  for  the  guidance  of  the  individual  user 
of  the  Electric  Vehicle.  It  is  assumed  that  the 
individual  user  is  concerned  with  the  primary  prin- 
ciples of  operation,  in  order  that  satisfactory  use 
may  be  secured  with  the  expenditure  of  the  least 
time  and  labor  in  accomplishing  these  results  in  the 
Private  Garage.  When  it  is  said  that  the  electric 
vehicle  requires  little  care  and  attention,  the  state- 
ment is  made  seriously  but  should  not  be  inter- 
preted to  mean  that  it  requires  no  attention  what- 
ever. This  foreword  may  seem  superfluous  to  some, 
but  experience  has  shown  that  it  has  been  this  fail- 
ure to  observe  the  few  simple  but  important  rules 
that  has  been  responsible  for  the  majority  of  com- 
plaints against  the  electric  car.  The  storage  battery 
is  neither  mysterious  nor  complicated,  but  being 
constructed  to  work,  must  be  kept  in  condition  to 
do  work.  The  attention  required  is  very  moderate 
indeed,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Part  II.  of  this  section  deals  with  the  Care  of 
Lead  Storage  Batteries  in  detail,  from  the  time  of 
their  receipt  from  the  manufacturer  to  the  end  of 
their  useful  life.  This  material  has  been  collected 
and  prepared  to  include  garage  practice  so  as  to  be 
of  value  to  all  concerned  in  the  operation  and  main- 
tenance of  vehicle  batteries. 


43 


PART  I. 

To  charge  a battery  completely  without  exces- 
sive  gassing,  or  heating,  is  the  Book  of  Rules  told 
in  one  sentence.  The  remarks  which  follow  ex- 
plain these  three  items. 

Water.  The  height  of  electrolyte  to  be  main- 
tained at  all  times  is  one-half  (34")  inch  above  the 
tops  of  the  plates.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  addi- 
tion of  pure  water  (preferably  distilled)  only.  The 
addition  of  pure  water  should  be  made  before 
charging  and  as  often  as  required  by  evaporation. 

Charging.  Direct  current  only  must  be  used  for 
charging.  Where  alternating  current  only  is  avail- 
able suitable  apparatus  (Chapter  VI.)  must  be 
used  to  convert  it  to  direct  current.  The  polarity 
must  be  correct,  that  is,  the  positive  terminal  of 
the  battery  must  be  connected  to  the  positive 
terminal  of  the  charging  supply  circuit. 

As  it  is  necessary  to  ventilate  the  battery  during 
charge,  the  battery  compartment  should  be  opened. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  it  is  not  necessary  to 
charge  the  battery  more  often  than  once  a week 
unless  over  fifty  (SO%)  per  cent,  of  its  capacity 
has  been  discharged.  The  battery  should  never  be 
allowed  to  stand  in  a discharged  condition. 

The  limitations  imposed  at  any  and  all  points  of 
the  charging  operation  are  those  of  gassing  of  the 
cells  and  temperature  of  the  electrolyte.  Excessive 
gassing  must  not  be  permitted.  Under  all  ordinary 
conditions  begin  the  charge  at  the  starting  rate  or 
higher  of  the  two  rates  given  on  the  name  plate 
or  in  Tables  I-V,  and  reduce  the  current  in 


44 


several  steps,  avoiding  gassing  and  high  tempera- 
ture, until  the  finishing  rate  has  been  reached.  Con- 
tinue the  charge  at  this  rate  until  the  voltage  and 
specific  gravity  have  risen  to  maximum  values.  At 
this  point  the  cells  will  be  gassing  freely.  It  is 
better  to  stop  the  regular  charge  too  soon  than  to 
overcharge.  It  is  permissible  to  begin  the  charge 
at  a higher  rate,  but  care  must  be  exercised  to  re- 
duce the  current  should  the  cells  gas  or  the  tem- 
perature rise  above  the  allowable  limit. 

Where  any  device  or  means  is  used  in  regulating 
the  charge,  especially  as  to  the  length  of  time,  it 
should  be  adjusted  so  that  a uniform  gassing  at  the 
finishing  rate,*  indicating  the  end  of  a regular  charge, 
will  be  produced.  This  amount  varies  somewhat 
but  is  between  five  and  fifteen  per  cent,  more 
than  the  number  of  ampere-hours  taken  from  the 
battery  on  the  preceding  discharge.  This  statement 
applies  to  ampere-hour  meters,  time  clocks  and  rec- 
tifiers fitted  with  an  automatic  attachment. 

Quick  Charging  or  “Boosting.”  At  times 
where  conditions  may  require  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  charge  in  the  time  available,  the  charge 
may  be  begun  at  a high  rate,  which  must  be  re- 
duced according  as  the  gassing  and  temperature  in- 
crease. The  temperature  must  never  be  allowed  to 
exceed  iio°  F. 

Equalizing  Charge.  Bi-weekly  at  the  end  of  the 
regular  charge  continue  the  charging  at  a rate  not 
greater  than  the  finishing  rate  until  the  specific 
gravity  has  stopped  rising.  When  hourly  gravity 


46 


readings  on  the  pilot  cell  are  alike  for  four  succes- 
sive readings,  then  the  overcharge  may  be  discon- 
tinued. 

Discharge.  The  battery  should  not  be  dis- 
charged below  1.7  volts  per  cell  at  its  normal  serv- 
ice rate  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  a 
discharged  condition.  If  the  full  charge  cannot  be 
immediately  given  it  should  be  put  on  for  a partial 
charge.  Beyond  these  limits  the  battery  may  be 
discharged  as  the  requirements  of  the  service  de- 
mand, however  severe  it  may  be. 

Gassing.  In  charging  the  battery,  the  rate  at 
which  the  cells  give  off  gas,  is  the  determining  fea^ 
ture.  Violent  gassing  should  at  no  time  be  permitted 
and  whenever  the  gassing  exceeds  a very  moderate 
amount,  the  charging  rate  should  be  lowered  even 
though  the  length  of  time  required  for  a charge 
be  greater.  Disregard  of  this  precaution  is^  prob- 
ably responsible  for  the  shortening  of  the  life  of 
most  batteries. 

Temperature.  The  temperature  of  the  electro- 
lyte should  be  kept  below  100°  F.  and  never  be 
allowed  to  rise  above  110°  F.  during  charge.  If 
necessary,  the  rate  should  be  decreased  or  charging 
temporarily  discontinued  until  the  cell  has  returned 
to  a normal  temperature. 

Electrolyte.  The  electrolyte  should  be  main- 
tained at  the  proper  level  by  the  addition  of  pure 
water.  Never  add  acid. 

At  least  once  a month  at  the  completion  of  the 
overcharge,  readings  of  specific  gravity  should  be 
recorded  on  all  cells.  Should  any  cell  have  a read- 


46 


ing  higher  than  1.300  or  lower  than  1.250  when 
fully  charged,  it  is  evidence  of  trouble,  such  as  a 
leaky  jar,  partial  short  circuit,  or  sloppage.  The 
trouble  should  be  found  and  remedied  immediately. 
See  “Electrolyte,''  page  72. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  should  at 
no  time  be  in  excess  of  1.300.  Should  this  con- 
dition be  found,  some  of  the  electrolyte  should  be 
withdrawn  and  water  added  to  reduce  the  gravity 
of  the  solution.  On  the  other  hand,  should  the 
reading  of  any  cell  be  less  than  1.250,  it  may  point 
to  insufficient  charging.  If  all  of  the  cells  have 
gradually  decreased  in  specific  gravity  to  below 
1.250  and  the  cause  not  be  insufficient  charging, 
or  lost  electrolyte  replaced  by  water,  then  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  sediment  has  accumulated  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jars,  the  battery  should  then  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a competent  battery  man  for  in- 
spection. 

The  “Pilot  Cell"  referred  to  above  is  a conveni- 
ent cell  of  the  number  which  may  be  taken  as  rep- 
resenting the  state  of  charge  of  the  battery.  There 
is  a known  variation  in  specific  gravity  during 
charge  for  each  type  of  cell  so  that  the  amount  of 
this  variation  be, low  the  specific  gravity,  when  fully 
charged,  will  indicate  the  partial  condition  of 
charge  at  any  time  during  charging  process.  The 
point  at  which  the  specific  gravity  reading  of  the 
pilot  cell  fails  to  increase  and  the  cells  gas  freely 
may  be  considered  the  end  of  a regular  charge. 

Battery  Out  of  Service.  If  the  battery  is  to 
stand  idle  for  any  length  of  time,  an  overcharge 


47 


should  be  given  immediately  before  and  immedi- 
ately after  the  period  of  standing.  Should  this  ex- 
tend over  several  months,  then  a freshening  charge 
should  be  given  monthly  at  the  finishing  rate.  If 
the  idle  period  is  to  exceed  four  months  or  the 
treatment  prescribed  cannot  be  given,  then  the  bat- 
tery should  be  sent  to  a garage  for  the  proper 
care. 

Caution.  Keep  naked  flames  away  from  the  bat- 
tery, both  while  charging  and  immediately  after 
charging  as  the  gases  liberated  are  explosive.  Ven- 
tilation is  required  to  dispose  of  them. 

For  handling  the  water  or  acid,  only  clean  glass 
or  earthenware  should  be  used. 

The  battery  should  be  kept  in  a clean  condition 
and  no  foreign  material  allowed  to  find  its  way 
into  the  cells. 

POINTS  TO  BE  REMEMBERED  IN  THE 
CARE  OF  LEAD  BATTERIES. 

Unnecessary  Charging.  Is  wasteful  of  current 
and  uses  up  the  life  of  the  battery. 

Standing  Discharged.  Is  to  be  avoided  in  all 
cases  as  the  succeeding  charge  would  otherwise 
have  to  be  for  a longer  time  than  usual  in  order  to 
bring  the  battery  into  normal  condition. 

Adding  Water.  Pure  water  (preferably  dis- 
tilled) only  should  be  used  and  added  before  charg- 
ing. Under  no  condition  put  in  acid  unless  dis- 
tinctly specified. 

Kind  of  Current.  Use  direct  current  only,  con- 
necting the  positive  (-{-)  terminal  of  the  battery 
to  the  positive  pole  of  supply  source. 

48 


TABLE  VI. 


CHARGING  VOLTAGES  FOR  LEAD  BATTERIES. 


VOLTS  AT 

No.  of 

VOLTS 

AT 

No.  of  Cells.  Start. 

Finish. 

Cells. 

Start. 

Finish. 

12 

26 

31 

32 

69 

81 

14 

30 

36 

34 

73 

87 

16 

34 

41 

36 

77 

92 

18 

39 

46 

38 

82 

97 

20 

43 

51 

40 

86 

102 

22 

47 

56 

42 

90 

107 

24 

52 

61 

44 

95 

112 

26 

56 

66 

46 

100 

117 

28 

60 

71 

48 

105 

123 

30 

64 

76 

50 

110 

128 

These 

voltages  are 

approximate 

and  are 

intended  for 

guidance 

only. 

A battery  when  cold  or  new  will  show  a higher  voltage  than  an 
old  one  or  at  high  temperature. 

It  is  not  safe  to  regard  a fixed  voltage 'as  the  end  of  the  charge, 
but  a maximum  voltage  for  the  battery  in  question. 

Ventilation.  Open  the  battery  compartment 
during  charge  and  secure  as  much  draft  of  air  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  battery  as  possible. 

Gassing.  Charge  only  until  moderate  amount 
of  gassing  is  produced  and  not  longer  as  it  is  waste- 
ful both  of  current  and  battery. 

Temperature.  During  charge  do  not  allow  the 
temperature  to  exceed  iio°  F.  Either  reduce  the 
current  or  discontinue  the  charge  temporarily,  if 
necessary. 

Caution.  Keep  naked  flames  away  from  the 
battery  in  order  that  the  gasses  may  not  be  ignited. 

PART  II. 

Unpacking.  The  crates  or  boxes  containing  the 
trays  should  be  handled  carefully  and  kept  right 
side  up  to  avoid  spilling  the  electrolyte.  They 
should  be  opened  from  the  top  and  if  necessary, 
one  of  the  sides  taken  off  for  the  removal  of  heavy 
trays.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  handling  of 
tools  so  that  the  jars  may  not  be  cracked.  The 


49 


trays  and  cells  should  then  be  cleaned  off  thoroughly 
and  each  cell  examined  for  any  possible  damage. 
All  the  connections  should  be  tight  and  clean  as  a 
loose  connection  would  be  liable  to  cause  reduction 
in  speed  and  mileage  and  eventually  burn  off. 
Should  a loose  connection  be  found,  it  should  be 
lead  burned  or  if  that  cannot  be  done  at  the  time, 
then  a temporary  repair  can  be  made  by  soldering 
but  should  be  lead  burned  as  soon  as  possible. 

Should  any  broken  or  cracked  jars  be  found,  they 
should  he  replaced  immediately.  If  there  are  no 
extra  jars  available,  then  the  element  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  broken  jar  and  placed  in  a glass  or 
earthenware  vessel  in  acid  of  approximately  1.275 
sp.  gr.  The  plates  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry  in 
air  as  it  would  require  a very  long  charge  to  bring 
them  back  to  a healthy  condition.  If  the  electrolyte 
level  is  lower  than  ^ inch  above  the  tops  of  the 
plates,  due  to  spilling  and  not  to  broken  jars,  then 
solution  should  be  added  to  the  correct  level. 

Batteries  when  shipped  in  the  wet  condition  are 
shipped  fully  charged  and  require  a freshening 
charge  at  the  finishing  rate  of  the  make  of  battery 
in  question,  until  all  cells  gas  freely,  before  being 
placed  in  service. 

When  cells  are  shipped  in  the  dry  condition,  they 
may  either  be  assembled  ready  for  the  addition  of 
electrolyte  and  the  developing  charge  or  as  plates 
to  be  burned  to  the  straps  and  assembled  in  the 
cells.  As  both  of  these  shipments  would  require 
the  developing  charge  they  cannot  be  placed  in  ser- 
vice as  can  the  batteries  received  in  the  wet  state. 


so 


ASSEMBLING  AND  PUTTING  NEW  BAT- 
TERIES INTO  CONDITION. 


The  parts  must  be  unpacked,  cleaned  and  exam- 
ined carefully  to  see  that  they  are  in  good  condition 
and  free  from  foreign  material. 

The  plates  must  be  grouped,  that  is,  lead  burned 
to  the  straps.  This  must  be  done  by  an  experienced 
lead  burner  and  when  finished  must  be  inspected 
to  see  that  no  lead  has  run  down  between  the  plates. 

The  plate  lugs  should  be  scraped  clean  and  bright 
by  a scraper  of  the  kind  used  by  a plumber  and  the 
plates  for  one  ‘group  placed  in  a burning  rack  or 
burning  box  as  shown  in  (Fig.  12).  Across  the 
top  of  this  box  is  fitted  a piece  of  iron  in  which 
notches  are  cut  correctly  spacing  the  plate  lugs. 
(Fig.  13.)  The  strap  is  then  placed  over  the  lugs 
and  burned  to  them.  The  details  of  this  assembly, 
as  to  the  distances  between  plates  and  from  the 
top  of  the  plate  to  the  strap,  will  depend  upon  the 
particular  type  and  make  of  battery  in  hand.  After 
the  plates  have  been  assembled  into  groups,  the 
latter  should  be  combined  ready  for  the  insertion 
of  the  separators.  This  is  done  by  placing  a per- 
forated hard  rubber  sheet  separator  against  the 
grooved  side  of  a wooden  separator.  These  pairs 
are  then  inserted  between  the  surfaces  of  each  posi- 
tive and  negative  plate  so  that  the  flat  side  of  the 
wooden  separator  is  against  the  negative  plate  and 
the  hard  rubber  sheet  against  the  positive  plate  in 
each  case.  Should  a separator,  either  wood  or  rub- 
ber, be  broken  while  being  placed  in  position,  it 


51 


should  be  discarded  for  a new  one.  No  separators 
are  placed  between  the  surface  of  the  negative  plate 
and  the  containing  jar.  It  is  well  to  be  careful  that 


Fig.  12 — Burning  Box. 


Fig.  13 — Burning  Iron.  For  as- 
sembling elements  with  top  or  high 
burned  straps. 

the  edges  of  the  separators  are  flush  with  the  bot- 
tom of  the  plates  so  that  contact  between  the  plates 
may  be  avoided.  The  plates  may  be  gently  pressed 
together  and  are  then  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  jar. 


62 


With  the  element  lying  horizontally  on  the  bench, 
the  top  of  the  jar,  bridges  crosswise  with  the  plates, 
is  placed  around  the  element,  being  started  carefully 
so  that  no  edge  of  the  plates  or  separators  may 
catch  on  the  rim  of  the  jar.  Only  jars  in  good  con- 
dition and  thoroughly  washed  should  be  used. 

It  is  necessary  to  secure  the  separators  firmly  in 
position  so  that  they  may  not  have  an  opportunity  to 
float  up  from  between  the  plates,  allowing  the  latter 
to  touch.  For  this  purpose  ''hold  downs’"  are  used. 
When  the  groups  are  assembled  with  pillar  straps, 
then  a fin  projects  down  sufficiently  to  keep  the 
separators  • in  place.  With  "L”  straps,  however, 
blocks  of  rubber  or  glass  are  used  to  keep  the 
separators  in  a rigid  position. 

The  cells  are  then  ready  for  the  acid,  assembly  in 
the  trays  and  connections,  so  that  the  developing 
charge  may  be  started.  In  several  factories,  the 
practice  is  to  place  the  cells  on  a bench,  instead  of 
in  the  regular  trays,  in  order  that  they  may  be  kept 
cool  by  circulation  of  air  during  the  initial  charge. 
Where  there'  is  any  tendency  for  the  containing 
jars  to  warp  or  bulge  from  the  heat,  it  is  prefer- 
able to  assemble  the  cells  in  the  trays  before  begin- 
ning the  developing  charge  as,  otherwise,  they  could 
not  be  readily  assembled  in  the  trays.  When  the 
developing  charge  has  been  completed,  the  acid  may 
be  poured  out  and  acid  the  proper  strength  immedi- 
ately added  to  the  correct  level. 

In  some  cases,  where  considerable  developing  is 
done,  arrangements  are  made  so  that  the  jars  may 
be  placed  in  a tank  through  which  cooling  water 

5B 


may  be  circulated  around  the  jars.  An  electric  fan 
also  helps  considerably  in  keeping  down  the  tem- 
perature of  the  cells  during  charging  by  circulating 
the  air. 

When  preparations  are  completed,  then  the  elec- 
trolyte of  such  specific  gravity  as  recommend- 
ed by  the  maker  should  be  added  to  the  cells 
to  a level  of  Yz  inch  above  the  plates.  The 
acid  should  not  be  above  atmospheric  tempera- 
ture as  the  mere  addition  of  acid  to  the  cell 
will  cause  heating.  It  is  necessary  for  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cell  to  decrease  to  a normal  value,  such 
as  that  of  the  room,  before  the  initial  charge  can 
be  begun.  As  this  may  take  from  lo  to  15  hours, 
it  is  generally  advisable  to  add  the  electrolyte  in  the 
afternoon  so  that  the  cells  may  be  allowed  to  cool 
over  night  and  be  ready  for  developing  the  follow- 
ing morning.  Also,  the  acid  will  combine  with  th  * 
water  in  the  separators  so  that  the  cells  should  stand 
for  at  least  12  hours  before  the  initial  charge  is 
begun. 

Having  made  the  necessary  connections,  the 
charging  should  be  begun  at  the  rate  given  in  the 
table  and  continued  for  the  length  of  time  neces- 
sary to  charge  the  plates  beyond  any  question  of 
doubt.  As  the  plates  are  received  dry,  and  may 
have  been  standing  in  a dry  condition  for  some 
length  of  time,  they  are  in  a somewhat  sulphated 
state  and  need  a long  initial  or  developing  charge 
to  remove  the  sulphate.  All  of  it  must  be  removed 
by  charging  since  if  it  is  not  removed  at  this  time 
it  will  probably  remain  permanently. 


64 


Cells  received  from  the  manufacturer  assembled 
and  ready  for  developing  are  sometimes  provided 
with  hard  rubber  separators  instead  of  with  wooden 
separators  because  wooden  separators  unless  main- 
tained in  a moist  condition  would  warp  and  crack 
and  be  unsuited  for  service.  To  the  cell  thus  as- 
sembled, it  is  necessary  only  to  add  acid  of  1.170 
specific  gravity  as  described  and  continue  with  the 
initial  charge. 

The  wooden  separators  are  specially  treated  by 
the  manufacturers  to  remove  impurities,  especially 
organic  substances,  which  would  greatly  reduce  the 
life  of  the  plates.  They  are  generally  shipped  in 
wet  sawdust  and  should  be  kept  moist  by  frequent 
sprinkling  with  water.  If  they  are  to  be  kept  for 
any  length  of  time  they  should  be  placed  in  ad:ank 
of  pure  water  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric 
acid. 

The  amount  of  charge  necessary  in  developing 
a new  battery  will  amount  to  about  six  times  the 
rated  ampere-hour  discharge  capacity,  but  must  be 
governed  solely  by  the  indication  of  completeness 
of  charge  with  very  little  gassing  and  not  exceed- 
ing a temperature  of  100°  F.  Should  the  tem- 
perature, during  any  part  of  the  charge,  rise  above 
110°,  the  charging  should  be  temporarily  discon- 
tinued until  the  normal  temperature  has  been  re- 
sumed. The  charge  should  continue  without  inter- 
ruption if  possible  until  the  voltage  and  specific 
gravity  have  reached  a maximum.  It  is  well  to 
continue  the  charging  for  about  ten  hours  beyond 
the  point  where  these  quantities  no  longer  rise,  in 


65 


order  that  surety  of  completeness  may  be  obtained. 
In  order  to  obtain  true  density  readings,  since  the 
specific  gravity  varies  with  the  temperature,  they 
must  be  corrected  for  the  temperature  changes  on 
the  basis  of  .001  specific  gravity  for  each  rise  of 
3°  F.,  the  standard  being  1.280  at  80°  F.  Table 
No.  7,  page  79,  gives  these  corrections  at  a glance 
for  the  entire  range  ordinarily  encountered  in  ve- 
hicle batteries. 

After  the  charge  has  been  completed,  the  elec- 
trolyte in  each  cell  should  be  tested  and  the  density 
adjusted  to  what  corresponds  to  1.280  at  80°  F., 
maintaining  the  proper  solution  level  of  above 
the  plates.  The  cells  will  usually  increase  in  ca- 
pacity for  a number  of  cycles  of  charge  and  dis- 
charge during  the  early  life  of  the  battery,  al- 
though the  most  rapid  period  of  increase  will  be 
during  the  first  10  cycles.  Should  a high  dis- 
charge capacity  be  required  immediately  when  the 
battery  is  put  into  service,  then  several  test  runs  of 
charge  and  discharge  should  be  given  before  put- 
ting the  battery  into  commission,  in  order  to  work 
up  the  capacity.  In  general  it  may  be  considered 
good  practice  to  make  a few  t^t  discharges  after 
the  developing  charge,  taking  careful  readings  of 
the  voltage  and  specific  gravity  of  each  cell  in  order 
to  make  sure  that  all  cells  have  been  developed 
evenly  and  sufficiently. 

Assuming  that  the  cells  have  been  tested  and 
found  ready  for  service,  they  are  then  ready  to 
be  assembled  in  the  trays.  Before  doing  this,  how- 
ever, inspection  should  be  made  to  see  that  they 


56 


have  been  correctly  assembled  with  separators  in 
proper  position  and  with  no  lead  ''flow  downs'' 
lodged  on  top  or  between  the  plates.  When  placed 
in  position  in  the  trays,  the  connections  between 
cells  should  be  carefully  lead  burned  to  the  full 
depth  of  the  straps  and  covers  placed  in  position. 
If  the  cells  are  to  be  sealed,  this  should  be  done 
before  the  cells  are  placed  in  the  trays  and  burned 
together.  The  jar  and  cover  must  be  clean  and 
dry  for  the  compound  to  adhere.  If  acid  or  wa- 
ter remains  on  the  hard  rubber  it  will  not  stick. 
The  sealing  compound  may  be  softened  by  being 
placed  in  a vessel  heated  over  a moderate  flame 
or  the  flame  rhay  be  applied  directly  over  the  com- 
pound. When  almost  liquid  it  may  be  readily 
applied  by  a hot  putty  knife.  For  pressing  into 
final  position  and  finishing  the  sealing  the  putty 
knife  should  itself  be  heated  in  the  flame.  The 
sealing  compound  must  neither  melt  at  the  work- 
ing temperatures  of  the  battery  nor  crack  at  low 
temperatures,  so  that  the  compounds  supplied  by 
the  manufacturers  should  be  used  rather  than  un- 
tried material. 

Cleanliness.  It  is  necessary  to  maintain  the  cells, 
trays,  terminals,  connections  and  the  battery  space 
in  the  vehicle  dry  and  free  of  electrolyte  as  a great 
many  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  ordinary 
use  can  be  traced  to  neglect.  Should  the  electro- 
lyte be  slopped  over  the  outsides  of  the  jars  and 
connectors  or  metal  fittings,  corrosion  will  result 
which  will  ultimately  create  loss  of  capacity. 


67 


CHARGING. 

Service  Charging.  In  charging,  direct  current 
only  can  be  used  in  order  to  effect  the  chemical 
changes.  Should  alternating  current  only  be  avail- 
able, then  a suitable  rectifying  device  must  be  used 
to  convert  the  alternating  current  to  direct  current. 
These  devices  are  described  under  '^Charging  Ap- 
|)aratus/’  Chapter  VI. 

Before  charging  is  begun  pure  water  (preferably 
distilled)  should  be  added  to  compensate  for  evapo- 
ration, bringing  the  level  of  the  electrolyte  to  one- 
half  inch  above  the  tops  of  the  plates. 

As  the  normal  condition  of  the  plates  in  the 
discharged  condition,  is  the  lead  sulphate  state,  the 
change  to  lead  peroxide  and  spongy  lead  in  the 
positive  and  negative  plates,  respectively,  should 
be  accomplished  without  wasting  current  or  wear- 
ing the  plates  too  rapidly.  If  the  battery  is  steadi- 
ly undercharged  then  the  plates  will  gradually  ac- 
cumulate sulphate  which  will  be  evidenced  by  low 
specific  gravity  and  low  capacity.  The  longer  the 
sulphate  remains  in  the  plate  the  more  difficult  it 
is  to  remove,  that  is,  the  more  charging  will  be 
necessary.  The  desire  therefore  in  bringing  the 
battery  to  a fully  charged  condition  is  to  send  all 
of  the  sulphate  from  the  plates  back  into  the  acid. 
In  so  doing,  the  current  must  not  be  so  great  as 
to  cause  excessive  gassing  since  that  would  tear 
small  particles  of  active  material  from  the  plate 
and  thus  shorten  its  life.  Moderate  gassing  is  per- 
missible and  at  the  proper  rate,  as  explained  later, 

58 


is  an  evidence  of  the  charged  condition.  The  tem- 
perature must  be  kept  within  moderate  limits  also 
so  that  the  chemical  action  may  not  be  too  rapid. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  charging  be  regulated 
so  that  temperatures  in  excess  of  iio°  F.  will  not 
be  reached.  If  necessary  reduce  the  current  or  dis- 
continue charging  until  the  battery  has  returned 
to  safe  limits. 

With  the  above  in  mind,  it  can  readily  be  under- 
stood that  when  a battery  has  been  fully  discharged 
it  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  that  condi- 
tion since  the  sulphate  would  be  hard  to  reduce, 
taking  an  abnormal  amount  of  charging  to  restore 
to  healthy  condition. 

From  this  it  is  evident  that  a battery  may  be 
charged  at  any  rate,  no  matter  how  large  or  small, 
as  long  as  the  temperature  does  not  rise  above 
110°  F.  and  the  gassing  does  not  become  excessive. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  most  satisfactory 
results  may  be  obtained  by  observing  the  follow-  ‘ 
ing  rules. 

Begin  the  charge  at  the  starting  rate,  given  in 
Tables  I-V,  and  reduce  the  current  in  sev- 
eral steps,  avoiding  gassing  and  high  temperature, 
until  the  finishing  rate  has  been  reached.  Con- 
tinue the  charge  at  this  rate  until  the  voltage  and 
specific  gravity  have  risen  to  a maximum  value. 
At  this  point  the  cells  will  be  gassing  freely.  It 
is  better  to  stop  the  regular  charge  too  soon  than 
to  continue  too  long.  It  is  necessary  to  add  be- 
ll tween  5 and  15%  more  ampere  hours  in  charging 


69 


than  have  been  taken  out  on  the  previous  dis- 
charge. 

The  voltage  of  the  battery  will  rise  during  the 
charge  to  a maximum  value,  which  is  not  neces- 
sarily, and  which  probably  will  not  be,  a fixed  val- 
ue. It  will  change  with  the  age  of  the  plates,  the 
strength  of  the  electrolyte  and  the  temperature. 
New  plates  will  have  a higher  final  voltage  than 
old  plates  and  both  will  give  higher  final  voltage 
with  low  temperature.  These  changes  render  charg- 
ing by  voltage  alone  as  a standard  a very  unre- 
liable process,  so  that  specific  gravity  and  gassing, 
with  voltage  as  a check,  give  the  best  results. 
Providing  that  the  battery  is  given  the  required 
care,  the  action  in  all  cells  will  be  practically  uni- 
form and  one  cell,  conveniently  located,  may  be 
taken  as  indicative  of  the  others.  Readings  of 
specific  gravity  taken  on  this  pilot  cell  therefore  af- 
ford a simple  and  easy  means  of  keeping  the 
charging  within  bounds.  The  gravity  varies 
slightly  with  the  temperature  and  Table  7,  page 
79,  is  given  so  that  corrections  may  be  easily  made, 
to  the  density  of  8o°  F. 

While  the  battery  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand 
in  a discharged  condition,  it  should  not  be  charged 
unless  necessary.  If  less  than  50%  of  the  capacity 
has  been  discharged  then  a charge  should  not  be 
given  unless  the  subsequent  discharge  will  require 
more  than  the  capacity  available.  To  run  the  car 
a comparatively  small  percentage  of  its  mileage 
and  then  give  approximately  a full  charge  is  evi- 


60 


dently  a waste  of  current  and  battery.  The  number 
of  cycles  of  charge  and  discharge  depends  upon  the 
conditions  of  service,  so  that  wasteful  charging 
dissipates  not  only  current  uselessly  but  plate  life 
also. 

A very  convenient  method  of  automatically  re- 
cording and  calculating  the  charging  necessary  is 
accomplished  by  an  instrument  known  as  an  Am- 
pere-Hour Meter,  Fig.  14.  This  instrument  is  fur- 
nished with  a dial,  and  hand  revolving  in  a coun- 
ter-clockwise manner  on  charge,  and  clockwise 
manner  on  discharge.  (This  order  is  reversed  by 
some  vehicle  manufacturers.)  During  the  dis- 
charge a glance  at  the  meter  gives  a direct  read- 
ing of  the  discharge  capacity  used,  so  that  know- 
ing the  total  discharge  capacity  available,  the 
amount  remaining  is  readily  given.  The  total  avail- 
able ampere  hour  capacity  divided  by  the  number 
of  miles  under  average  conditions  of  driving  will 
give  the  ampere  hours  per  mile.  This  figure  de- 
pends upon  the  condition  of  vehicle,  roads  and  load 
carried.  Taken  under  normal  conditions,  however, 
this  figure  divided  into  the  capacity  gives  the  aver^ 
age  mileage  obtainable  on  one  charge  of  the  bat- 
tery. If  the  capacity  be  120  ampere  hours  and  the 
ampere  hours  per  mile  be  3,  then  approximately 
40  miles  is  available  per  charge  of  the  battery. 

During  charge  the  pointer  revolves  counter- 
clockwise until  it  reaches  the  vertical  position  where 
it  remains  against  a stop,  showing  full  charge.  An 
adjustment  is  provided  allowing  the  charge  to  be 
made  from  o to  30%  greater  than  the  discharge. 


61 


This  setting  is  arbitrary  and  depends  upon  the 

service  conditions.  Additional  wiring  is  provided 

so  that  a circuit  breaker  may  be  closed  when  the 

pointer  reaches  the  stop,  disconnecting  the  battery 
• • • • 
from  the  charging  circuit. 

This  feature  is  very  convenient  for  effecting 

the  desired  charge  with  little  waste  and  minimum 


Fig.  14 — ‘Ampere-Hour  Meter. 


attendance  as  well  as  for  discontinuing  a charge 
during  the  night, 

EQUALIZING  CHARGE. 

Under  the  head  of  charging  the  instruction  was 
given  to  discontinue  the  charge  too  soon  rather 
than  to  charge  too  long.  Under  this  heading  the 
instruction  is  to  overcharge  too  long  rather  than 


62 


loo  little.  The  reason  for  this  is  tliat  the  over- 
charge is  designed  to  bring  each  cell  of  the  bat- 
tery to  a fully  charged  condition.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  continuing  a regular  charge  at  the  fin- 
ishing rate  three  or  four  hours  after  the  pilot  cell 
has  reached  a maximum  of  specific  gravity  and 
voltage  readings.  Hourly  readings  should  be  taken. 
When  several  of  these  are  alike  the  overcharge 
may  be  discontinued.  Before  beginning  this  charge 
inspection  should  be  made  of  all  cells  and  pure 
water  added  to  bring  the  solution  to  the  correct 
level  of  one-half  inch  above  tops  of  plates. 

The  regular  charge  should  be  discontinued  when 
the  battery  is  approximately  charged  so  that  no 
harm  may  be  done  bv  constantlv  overcharging.  As- 
suming that  the  plates  are  not  fully  charged  each 
time,  the  capacity  will  decrease  gradually  as  indi- 
cated by  the  lower  specific  gravity  readings.  It  is 
necessary  to  send  the  acid  held  in  the  plates 
back  into  the  solution,  recovering  the  full  capacity, 
by  the  periodic  overcharge.  Therefore,  should  the 
car  be  charged  and  discharged  daily,  a weekly  over- 
charge would  be  most  satisfactory,  while  on  the 
other  hand  if  the  mileage  required  be  small  and 
the  regular  charges  infrequent  then  a bi-weekly 
overcharge  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  plates  in  healthy 
condition. 

When  a battery  is  to  remain  idle  for  any  length 
of  time,  a freshening  overcharge  should  be  given 
at  least  monthly  and  preferably  bi-weekly  while  not 
in  service.  Should  the  period  be  for  over  four 
months  or  facilities  for  this  charge  not  available 


63 


then  the  battery  should  be  taken  apart  and  stored 
dry  as  explained  under  ‘'Taking  Out  of  Commis- 
sion/' page  91. 

CHARGING  OVERNIGHT. 

There  are  a number  of  applications  in  which  it 
is  impossible  for  attention  to  be  given  the  battery 
during  charge,  such  as,  charging  overnight  or  when 
no  attendance  can  be  given.  In  this  case  the  bat- 
tery may  be  placed  on  charge  at  a rate  never  more 
than  2/3  of  its  regular  “starting  rate"  and  allowed 
to  remain  on  charge,  the  current  gradually  de- 
creasing until  discontinued  either  by  hand  or  by 
an  automatic  device.  The  number  of  ampere-hours 
required  should  be  estimated  by  adding  10%  to 
the  capacity  in  ampere-hours  taken  from  the  bat- 
tery on  its  previous  discharge.  Thus  the  number 
of  ampere-hours  required  to  fully  charge  the  bat- 
tery, divided  by  the  number  of  hours  available,  will 
give  the  average  current  for  the  charge.  When 
charging  from  a constant  potential  circuit,  the  cur- 
rent will  decrease  gradually  throughout  the  charge. 
This  is  most  rapid  at  the  beginning  due  to  the 
heating  of  the  charging  rheostat  and  the  rise  in 
counter  electromotive  force  of  the  battery.  For  this 
reason  the  rate  may  be  set  two  or  three  amperes 
higher  than  the  average  current  at  the  beginning, 
but  a rate  exceeding  Yz  of  the  “starting  rate" 
should  not  be  used  unless  attention  can  be  given. 

The  limiting  conditions  of  charging  in  this  man- 
ner are  gassing  and  temperature  and  what  has 
been  said  in  the  previous  paragraphs  is  also  true 


64 


in  this  case.  Excessive  gassing  or  high  tempera- 
tures must  not  be  permitted  so  that  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  frequent  attention,  observing  the  tem- 
perature and  gassing  during  the  first  few  periods 
of  charge,  in  order  that  the  results  may  be  obtained 
without  running  the  risk  of  ruining  the  battery. 
After  these  experimental  charges,  conditions  will 
be  known  approximately  and  a close,  estimate  can 
be  arrived  at  for  subsequent  unattended  charges. 

There  are  a number  of  automatic  means  for  reg- 
ulating charging.  The  ampere-hour  meter  has  been 
described.  When  wired  to  a circuit  breaker  it  dis- 
continues the  charge  when  the  required  number  of 
ampere  hours  have  been  supplied.  The  hand  on 
its  dial  rotates  to  its  zero  position  m.aking  a con- 
tact which  closes  the  trip  circuit  of  the  circuit 
breaker. 

A time  clock  may  also  be  secured  that  will  open 
the  circuit  at  a predetermined  time.  Mercury  Arc 
Rectifiers  are  furnished  with  attachments  which 
not  only  restore  the  arc  in  case  the  service  has  been 
discontinued,  but  which  also  cut-out  when  a cer- 
tain rriaximum  voltage  has  been  reached.  None  of 
these  devices  control  the  rate  of  current  during 
the  charge  so  that  while  the  time  during  which 
the  charge  lasts  may  be  correct,  the  rate  of  charge 
depends  wholly  upon  the  attendant,  and  should  be 
kept  as  low  as  possible  in  order  that  the  limita- 
tions of  temperature  and  gassing  may  not  be  ex- 
ceeded. Whenever  possible,  attention  should  be 
given  to  obviate  any  damage  from  excessive  heat- 
ing or  gassing. 


C5 


BOOSTING  OR  EMERGENCY  CHARGING. 

Charging  of  this  nature  is  particularly  adapted 
to  conditions  under  which  the  capacity  required 
from  a battery  is  greater  than  the  normal  output  for 
which  it  is  designed.  If  the  vehicle  requires  a 
boost  in  order  to  reach  its  garage  or  cover  its  route, 
after  a trip  which  has  taken  practically  all  of  its 
available  capacity,  or  if  an  extra  trip  is  contem- 
plated which  it  is  estimated  the  remaining  capacity 
will  not  meet,  then  this  emergency  charging  is  ex- 
ceedingly useful.  During  certain  times  of  the  year 
the  road  conditions  or  extra  heavy  loads  make  an 
extra  charge  necessary.  This  may  be  given  either 
when  the  battery  has  been  fully  discharged  or  dur- 
ing a noon  hour,  or  other  similar  period  of  rest. 
The  advantage  of  the  noon  hour  period  is  that  no 
unnecessary  time  need  be . spent,  but  on  the,  other 
hand,  the  charge  will  be  limited  to  approximately 
one  hour.  The  use  of  boosting  charges  makes  it 
possible  to  design  the  battery  for  average  require- 
ments instead  of  carrying  sufficient  battery  capacity 
for  maximum  requirements. 

In  giving  a charge  at  a high  rate,  the  limiting 
features  are  temperature  and  gassing.  The  tem- 
perature must  not  be  allowed  to  rise,  under  any 
circumstances,  above  iio°  F.  and  should  be  kept 
as  much  below  ioo°  F.  as  possible.  In  the  sum- 
mer it  is  evident  that  this  will  limit  this  method 
of  charging.  The  gassing  should  at  no  time  be 
permitted  to  be  excessive  and  it  is  well  to  keep  it 
a minimum,  The  more  fully  the  battery  is  dis- 


charged  the  higher  may  be  the  starting  rate  of  the 
boost  so  that  a fully  discharged  battery  may  re- 
ceive the  same  amount  of  charge  in  a shorter  time 
than  a battery  which  has  been  but  partly  discharged. 

The  standard  instructions  for  giving  a rapid 
charge  are  to  start  the  charge  at  a rate  50%  above 
the  normal  charging  rate,  gradually  reducing  the 
current  step  by  step  until  the  finishing  rate  is 
reached,  when  the  charging  may  proceed  as  de- 
scribed under  ''normab’  service  charging.  The 
limits  of  gassing  and  temperature  must  be  very 
rigidly  observed  or  damage  will  result.  The  indi- 
cations of  the  extent  of  charge  are  voltage,  specific 
gravity  and  gassing  as  have  been  explained. 

A method  for  boosting  which  has  been  developed 
and  recommended  by  several  prominent  storage 
battery  engineers,  making  use  of  the  ampere-hoiu 
meter  is  as  follows:  Make  the  boosting  rate  in 

amperes  equal  to  the  quotient  of  the  ampere-hours 
discharged  from  the  battery  divided  by  one  plus 
the  time  available  for  boosting  in  hours.  That  is, 
if  the  ampere-hour  meter  shows  200  ampere-hours 
discharged  and  one  hour  available  for  charging 

200 

then  the  rate  would  be = 100  amperes 

I + I 

for  one  hour.  If  but  15  minutes  should  be  avail- 

200 

. able  then  the  current  could  be  as  high  as 

I + .25 

= 160  amperes.  It  is  said  that  the  gassing  point 


67 


will  just  be  approached  at  the  end  of  the  specified 
time,  when  the  rates  are  determined  by  the  above 
rule. 

Experience  has  also  shown  that  when  a battery 
is  placed  upon  a constant  potential  circuit  of  2.3 
to  2.35  volts  per  cell  without  intervening  resistance, 
that  the  charging  rate  in  amperes  will  then  very 
nearly  equal  the  state  of  discharge  in  ampere-hours 
at  any  time. 

Having  in  mind  what  has  been  said  under  this 
heading,  it  is  evident  that  a charge  may  be  begun 
at  any  current  rate,  several  times  the  normal  charg- 
ing rate  if  necessary  and  reduced  according  as 
the  gassing  and  temperature  dictate.  This  method 
is  very  convenient  and  will  admit  of  very  flexible 
operation  of  the  electric  vehicle,  but  it  is  recom- 
mended for  use  only  in  the  hands  of  competent 
attendants. 

CHARGING  OUT  OF  THE  VEHICLE. 

When  it  is  necessary  either  for  test,  after  re- 
pairs, or  with  reserve  batteries  to  charge  them  out 
of  the  vehicle  on  a bench,  then  the  operation  fami- 
liarly known  as  a ‘'Bench  Charging’’  or  “Discharg- 
ing” is  identical  with  that  described  for  the  battery 
in  the  vehicle  in  nearly  all  particulars.  It  admits 
of  ready  access  to  each  of  the  cells  during  the  en- 
tire charge  and  discharge  and  enables  the  operator 
to  make  complete  and  full  readings  of  voltage, 
specific  gravity,  temperature  and  such  other  in- 
spection, as  may  be  required,  upon  each  cell  of  the 
number. 


68 


The  connections  from  the  battery  to  the  charg- 
ing source  are  not  effected  by  means  of  the  charg- 
ing plug  and  receptacle,  as  the-  battery  is  discon- 
nected from  the  vehicle  wiring.  Should  there  be 
necessity  for  considerable  bench  charging  then  it 
might  be  convenient  to  have  an  extra  receptacle 
the  terminals  of  which  would  admit  of  rapid  bu^ 
secure  fastening  to  the  battery  terminals. 

When  the  battery  is  in  the  vehicle  it  is  dis- 
charged by  passing  the  current  through  the  motor, 


Fig.  15 — Battery  Connected  for  Test  Discharge. 


which  does  useful  work,  such  as  propelling  the  ve 
hide.  In  this  case,  however,  the  current  is  to  be 
dissipated  in  the  form  of  heat  by  passing  the  cur- 
rent through  a suitable  resistance  or  rheostat.  The 
positive  and  negative  terminals  are  connected  (Fig. 
15)  through  the  rheostat  or  suitable  resistance  and 
an  ammeter.  The  ammeter  indicates  the  current 
rate  of  discharging  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of 


charge.  The  rheostat  used  in  charging  will  not 
have  sufficient  resistance  for  discharging  the  bat- 
tery especially  at  the  beginning  of  the  discharge. 
When  the  voltage  is  high,  additional  resistance 
must  be  placed  in  series. 

One  that  is  very  convenient  and  easily  con- 
structed is  what  is  known  as  a W^ater  Resistance. 
This  is  constructed  by  making  use  of  a wooden 
tub  or  half-barrel.  Two  wooden  sticks  or  rods 
are  laid  parallel  across  the  top  of  the  barrel  and 
from  them  are  suspended  two  metal  plates  (iron 
grids  or  lead  iron)  parallel  to  each  other  One 
wire  from  the  battery  is  connected  to  one  of  these 
plates  through  one  pole  of  a double  pole  switch, 
the  other  plate  is  connected  through  the  ammeter 
to  the  other  pole  of  the  switch  and  thence  to  the 
other  battery  terminal.  Before  starting  to  dis- 
charge, all  the  resistance  should  be  put  in  the  cir- 
cuit in  the  charging  rheostat  ordinarily  used  and 
the  plates  in  the  tub  separated  as  far  as  possible. 


Fiff.  16 — Battery  Connected  for  Charging  when  Out  of  tlie 
Vehicle. 


70 


The  till)  can  then  be  filled  with  clean  water  and 
the  switch  closed. 

Small  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  added  to  the 
water  from  time  to  time  will  increase  the  current 
and  will  serve  in  the  same  way  as  moving  the 
plates  toward  each  other.  It  is  preferable  to  have 
the  plates  remain  fixed  and  to  add  acid,  increasing 
the  conductivity  of  the  solution  as  short  circuit  be- 
tween the  plates  will  be  less  liable  to  result.  This 
resistance  in  series  with  the  regular  resistance  will 
give  easy  and  fine  regulation  of  the  current.  The 
diagram  shows  the  method  of  connecting  the  parts 
and  taking  the  readings. 

In  making  the  connections  referred  to,  the  wires 
or  cables  should  be  of  such  size  as  not  to  heat 
unduly  at  the  maximum  current  of  discharge.  The 
size  of  wire  used  in  the  vehicle  is  sufficiently  large 


n 


INSPECTION. 

An  inspection  should  take  place  at  least  every 
month  in  order  that  slight  troubles  may  be  rem- 
edied before  they  become  serious  and  serious  ones 
remedied  immediately.  If  the  battery  compartment 
is  constructed  so  that  the  inspection  may  take 
place  with  the  trays  in  the  vehicle  then  it  is  not 
necessary  to  remove  them.  If  this  is  not  the  case, 
however,  then  it  would  be  necessary  to  disconnect 
the  end  leads  to  the  controller  and  slide  the  trays 
out.  A low  truck  on  rollers  is  found  to  be  very 
convenient  for  this  work  as  the  truck  can  be  run 
up  along  side  or  in  front  of  the  battery  compart- 
ment and  the  tray  placed  upon  it.  In  fact,  an  ad- 
justable platform  truck  is  manufactured  for  this 
service.  The  rubber  plugs  should  be  removed  so 
that  the  tops  of  the  plates  may  be  seen.  The  level 
of  the  electrolyte,  which  should  be  one-half  inch 
above  the  plates,  should  be  determined  by  means 
of  a piece  of  one-quarter  inch  glass  tubing  or  by 
inserting  a clean  strip  of  wool  or  hard  rubber.  If 
the  level  is  not  correct  it  should  be  made  so  by 
adding  pure  water.  The  connectors  between  the 
cells  should  be  examined  and  if  any  are  found  to 
be  weak,  loose  or  broken  they  should  be  repaired. 
After  cleaning,  the  trays  are  then  ready  to  be 
placed  in  commission. 

ELECTROLYTE 

The  electrolyte  used  in  the  lead  type  cell  is  a 
mixture  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  and  pure  water. 
This  mixture,  known  as  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  should 
be  chemically  pure,  but  no  harm  will  result  if  cer- 


72 


tain  chemicals  are  present  which  do  not  afifect  the 
activity  of  the  cell.  Impurities  such  as  iron,  cop- 
per, platinum,  mercury,  arsenic,  chlorine,  nitric 
acid  and  acetic  acid  must  never  be  present. 

Always  ponr  acid  into  zvater,  never  water  into 
acid. 

When  acid  and  water  are  combined,  a chemical 
reaction  takes  pl^ce  and  considerable  heat  is  de- 
veloped, the  amount  of  heat  depends  upon  the  rela- 
tive proportion  of  acid  and  water.  Should  a small 
quantity  of  water  be  poured  into  a vessel  of  acid, 
the  water  would  immediately  be  turned  explosively 
into  steam  with  the  result  that  a part  of  the  mix- 
ture of  water  and  acid  would  fly  up  from  the  ves- 
sel and  probably  seriously  injure  the  face  and  hands 
of  the  operator.  Ordinarily  it  is  more  advisable 
for  the  user  to  purchase  electrolyte  ready  for  use 
or  if  wanted  in  quantity,  acid  of  1.400  specific  grav- 
ity will  usually  be  found  of  sufficient  strength. 

Owing  to  the  heat  generated  it  is  necessary  to 
allow  the  solution  to  cool  before  taking  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  mixture  inasmuch  as  the  dens- 
ity changes  with  the  temperature.  By  referring  to 
Table  7,  on  page  79,  the  real  density  at  any  tem- 
perature may  be  found  and  compared  with  that  at 
a standard  temperature  of  80°  F.  This  change  in 
specific  gravity  is  due  to  temperature  and  is  a physi- 
cal change  only.  However,  when  electrolyte  is 
used  in  the  active  cell  then  another  change  takes 
place  which  has  already  been  described,  that  is,  a 
variation  in  density  due  to  chemical  change,  the 
acid  being  absorbed  by  the  plates.  The  acid  itself 


73 


is  broken  up,  the  sulphate  part  combining  with  the 
plates  and  the  hydrogen  part  combining  with  the 
oxygen  set  free  to  form  water  in  the  electrolyte. 

Thus  the  specific  gravity  of  the  cell  will  decrease 
as  the  cell  is  discharged  and  increase  upon  charge, 
returning  to  the  original  value  upon  charging  to 
the  same  extent  as  originally,  making  allowance  for 
the  temperature  change.  The  density  increases  un- 
til all  the  acid  is  out  of  the  plates.  In  some  cases 
where  the  plates  are  badly  sulphated,  that  is  where 
the  sulphate  has  hardened,  excessive  charging  will 
be  required  to  remove  it.  During  such  a charge 
the  rise  in  gravity  will  be  very  slow. 

This  specific  gravity  or  density  is  measured  by 
simple  instrument  known  as  a hydrometer.  This 
very  useful  accessory  is  constructed  of  glass 
weighted  at  the  bottom  with  lead  shot  and  posses- 
ses a calibrated  scale  so  that  when  immersed  in  the 
liquid,  the  reading  of  the  scale  at  the  surface  of 
the  solution  is  the  specific  gravity  of  the  electro- 
lyte. 

For  convenience  in  making  this  reading  the  hy- 
drometer is  usually  placed  in  a second  glass  tube 
of  sufficient  diameter  to  allow  the  hydrometer  to 
float.  This  hydrometer  syringe  furnished  with  a 
pure  rubber  tube  at  the  lower  end  and  a rubber  bulb 
at  the  upper  end  permits  electrolyte  to  be  drawn 
from  the  cell  into  the  barrel  and  to  float  the  hy- 
drometer. In  this  manner  the  gravity  readings  of  the 
electrolyte  in  all  the  cells  of  the  battery  may  be  read- 
ily and  quickly  determined.  For  ordinary  charging  it 
is  necessary  to  read  the  gravity  of  a few  cells  only, 


74 


“pilot  cells/'  assuming  that  these  are  characteristic 
of  the  battery.  At  the  inspection  and  reforming 
periods,  however,  each  cell  should  be  carefully  gone 
over. 

The  amount  of  the  electrolyte  required  in  the 
cells  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  containing  jar 
and  the  number  and  size  of  plates  and  is  usually 
given  in  the  manufacturer’s  catalogue.  However, 
it  is  a simple  matter  to  remember  that  whatever 
this  size  may  be,  the  electrolyte  in  any  cell  should 
be  one-half  inch  above  the  tops  of  the  plates  so 
that  sufficient  may  be  available  for  evaporation 
or  sloppage  without  exposing  any  of  the  plate 
surfaces,  which  is  injurious. 

The  specific  gravity,  when  the  cell  is  fully 
charged,  will  be  approximately  1.260  to  1.280,  de- 
pending upon  the  condition  of  the  cell  and  tem- 
perature ; when  the  cell  is  considered  discharged, 
the  gravity  will  have  fallen  loO'  points  more  or 
less  depending  upon  the  type  of  battery,  owing  to 
the,  removal  of  sulphuric  acid  by  the  plates.  From 
this  it  can  be  readily  understood  that  the  amount 
of  charge  can  be  at  once  found  by  taking  hydro- 
meter readings,  knowing  the  upper  and  lower  limits 
for  the  particular  battery  in  question  and  correcting 
for  temperature  change,. 

Throughout  the  instructions  emphasis  has  been 
laid  upon  the  fact  that  distilled  water  only  should 
be  used  to  replace  evaporation.  The  reason  for 
this  is,  that  adding  acid  would  change  the  gravity 
of  the  cell  and  so  there  would  be  no  check  upon  its 
condition  with  the  effect  that  the  strength  of  the 


76 


solution  would  gradually  become  too  great  for  sat- 
isfactory results,  sulphating  the  plates  and  reduc- 
ing the  efficiency  of  the  cell.  It  is  obvious  that  by 
changing  the  gravity  through  such  means  that  no 
indication  of  the  state  of  charge  would  be  reliable. 
High  density  when  thus  given  will  shorten  the  life 
of  the  battery. 

Should  a leaky  cell  be  found  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  place  the  element  in  a new  jar  and  fill  with 
electrolyte  of  1.250  specific  gravity.  After  charging 
at  the  ‘‘finishing’’  rate  until  the  gravity  of  the  leaky 
cell  has  ceased  to  rise,  the  density  should  be  finally 
adjusted  to  the  correct  point  (1.270-1.280). 

After  the  overcharge  has  been  given,  gravity 
readings  should  be  taken  of  all  cells  of  the  battery. 
If  the  battery  has  received  the  proper  overcharge 
and  it  is  evident  that  low  specific  gravity  in  any 
cell  is  due  to  sloppage  or  spilling  and  not  under- 
charging, then  some  of  the  electrolyte  should  be 
withdrawn  and  acid  added  to  bring  the  gravity  up 
to  that  of  the  other  cells.  If  the  specific  gravity 
be  higher  than  1.300  in  any  cell  it  should  be  re- 
duced by  withdrawing  electrolyte  and  adding  pure 
v/ater.  This  “equalizing”  should  be  done  only  when 
low  density  is  not  due  to  insufficient  charging,  be- 
cause the  gravity  is  the  indicator,  and  tampering 
with  the  indicator  will  only  give  temporary,  mis- 
leading results. 

Should  there  be  doubt  of  the  purity  of  the  water 
or  electrolyte  or  indications  of  trouble  from  them, 
then  samples  of  one  quart  of  water  or  eight  ounces 


76 


of  solution  should  be  sent  to  the  manufacturer  for 
test. 

Electrolyte — Low  Cells.  There  are  many 
causes  for  low  cells,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned, insufficient  charging,  leaky  jar,  loss  of 
electrolyte  by  spilling,  broken  parts  or  presence  of 
foreign  material.  The  remedies  for  these  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes. 

The  first  and  simplest  is  to  treat  the  cell  electri- 
cally, by  prolonged  charging  at  a low  rate,  until 
the  gravity  and  voltage  reach  a maximum.  This 
charge  should  be  too  long  rather  than  too  short,  for 
if  not  complete  the  trouble  will  be  only  temporarily 
removed. 

In  the  case  of  leaky  jars  it  is  necessary  only  to 
replace  the  jar  and  give  a long  charge  at  a low  rate, 
after  which  the  gravity  should  be  adjusted  to  the 
same  value  as  that  of  the  adjoining  cells.  When 
water  has  been  added  to  replace  spilled  electrolyte 
then  the  gravity  may  be  equalized  by  adding  acid 
enough  to  bring  up  the  density.  If  foreign  material 
has  found  its  way  into  the  solution,  then  the  solu- 
tion should  be  renewed  and  the  water  used  to  re- 
place evaporation  tested  for  impurities  as  explained 
under  “Electrolyte.’’  Salt  and  iron  are  most  likely 
to  find  their  way  into  the  cells.  Salt  will  be  indi- 
cated by  the  offensive  odor  of  the  chlorine  gas  given 
off  during  charging  and  iron  by  the  dirty  yellow 
color  given  to  the  positive  plates.  Similar  evidences 
are  given  by  other  impurities. 


77 


If  these  are  found  present,  the  cell  should  be  dis- 
mantled irrespective  of  its  state  of  charge  or  dis- 
charge, as  explained  under  ‘‘Sediment,’’  washed  and 
reassembled  with  pure  electrolyte  of  the  same  grav- 
ity as  that  removed  and  new  wood  separators  and 
given  several  charges  and  discharges.  After  these 
and  while  discharged,  again  take  the  cell  apart,  rinse 
the  parts  well  and  reassemble  with  new  electrolyte 
of  1.200  specific  gravity.  Then  give  a long  charge. 
All  precautions  should  be  taken  as  detailed  under 
“Sediment,”  p.  82. 

Taking  the  cell  apart  to  inspect  for  sediment,  con- 
tition  of  separators,  short  circuits  between  plates, 
etc.,  includes  only  dismantling  the  cell  and  reassem- 
bling into  the  original  condition  as  nearly  as 
possible. 

When  it  is  necessary  for  inspection  or  in  testing 
to  determine  the  cell  voltages  throughout  the  charge 
and  discharge  periods,  the  readings  are  taken  with 
a low  reading  voltmeter.  An  accurate  instrument 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose  and  should  be  re- 
turned to  the  manufacturer  or  competent  labora- 
tory for  calibration  at  least  twice  a year. 

Probably  the  most  convenient  form  of  voltmeter 
is  one  which  has  a double  scale,  one  scale  reading 
o to  150  volts  for  determining  a complete  battery  or 
line  voltage  and  the  other  scale  reading  o to  3 volts. 
Where  there  is  sufficient  use  for  a low  reading  volt- 
meter, an  instrument  with  but  one  (low  reading) 


78 


TABLE  VII. 

TEMPERATURE  CORRECTION  FOR  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  ELECTROLYTE 


30SOOOOl>l^;0?OiO‘0'«i<'^COCO<NClrHrHOOO>OiOOQOI>t^?0«OOU3T*H 
5 Oi 


O CO  00  CO  00  CO  00  CO  00  CO  00  CO  OO  CO  00  CO  00  CO  OO  CO  00  CO  00  CO  00  CO  00  00  00  CO  00 
f^050000t-t^C0Oir0U0'ii<rt(C0C0CMOir-lrHOOa)050000l>t^«0OOU0'>ti 


COOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOOCOOO 
O O Oi  Oi  00  00  1>  «D  CO  uo  lO  CO  CO  C4  (OJ  iH  iH  O O Ol  05  00  00  i>  i>  <C  UO 

p CO  (M  C4 


70 


1.167  1.163  1.160  1.157  1.163  1.150  1.147  1.143  1.140 


scale  might  be  of  increased  value  for  taking  the 
individual  cell  and  cadmium  readings.  Voltme- 
ters are  delicate  and  will  not  stand  abuse  with  im- 
punity. Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  apply 
the  o — 3 volt  terminals  to  the  iio-volt  circuit  or 
over  more  than  one  cell,  as  the  instrument  would 
very  probably  be  burned  out.  Also  the  needle 
should  not  be  sent  in  the  wrong  direction  as  the 
violent  shock  would  be  liable  to  bend  it  out  of 
shape. 

Voltage  readings  of  the  cells  are  of  value  only 
when  taken,  while  current  is  passing  through  the 
cells  either  in  charging  or  discharging.  They  then 
serve  to  indicate  the  condition  of  the  cell  under  all 
its  states  of  health. 

The  leads  or  small  rubber  covered  copper  wires 
from  the  voltmeter  terminals  to  the  points  across 
which  the  voltage  is  to  be  measured  should  be  of 
sufficient  length  to  reach  from  the  terminals  of  the 
meter  to  the  cell  at  the  most  remote  corner  of  the 
battery,  so  that  readings  of  every  cell  may  be 
quickly  obtained.  A very  convenient  method  of 
making  good  contact  rapidly  between  the  leads  and 
the  cell  terminals  is  to  fasten  the  leads  to  sharp 
metal  points  held  in  wooden  handles.  These  may  be 
easily  constructed  by  inserting  a wire  nail  into  a 
wooden  handle  and  soldering  the  lead  to  the  nail. 
These  are  familiarly  known  as  ‘^stickers’’  or  ‘*stab- 
bers.’’  One  should  be  conspicuously  marked  posi- 
tive ( + ) or  the  wire  from  it  knotted  at  both  its 
ends  in  order  that  the  positive  lead  may  be  placed 


80 


upon  the  positive  pole  and  not  on  the  negative  by 
accident. 

During  charge,  voltage  of  a cell  will  rise  from* 
2.2  volts  to  2.5 — 2.6  volts  and  during  discharge  will 
decrease  from  2.1  to  1.7  volts.  The  discharge 
should  not  be  carried  below  1.7  volts  per  cell  as  the 
voltage  drops  very  rapidly  after  that  point  and  an 
abnormal  amount  of  charging  would  be  required  to 
bring  the  cell  back  into  condition  when  thus  over- 
discharged. However,  should  the  rate  of  discharge 
be  higher  than  the  normal  or  catalogue  discharge 
rate,  then  the  limiting  voltage  will  decrease  with 
increase  of  current  and  a somewhat  lower  voltage 
is  permissible.  This  is  the  condition  which  obtains 
when  cells  are  discharged  under  service  conditions. 
When  they  are  being  tested,  the  catalogue  rates  of 
discharge  should  be  maintained  in  order  that  a defi- 
nite basis  for  comparison  may  be  secured.  The 
manufacturers’  catalogue  discharge  rate  is  a 4,  4V2, 
5 or  6 hour  discharge  rate,  depending  upon  the  type 
and  thickness  of  the  plates. 

By  a study  of  the  voltage  readings  of  each  cell 
of  the  battery  during  the  progress  of  the  charge, 
it  is  possible  to  determine  accurately  how  the  cells 
are  reaching  their  state  of  completely  charged  con- 
dition and  whether  all  increase  uniformly. 

In  a similar  manner  half-hourly  readings  taken 
during  the  discharge  show  the  relative  capacities  of 
the  cells.  Those  which  give  noticeably  lower  volt- 
ages than  the  rest  during  the  discharge  are  called 
‘'low  cells,”  and  if  extra  charging  does  not  restore 
them  to  the  condition  of  the  other  cells  then  it  is 


81 


necessary  to  treat  them  as  explained  under  '‘Loss  of 
Capacity’'  (page  88). 

SEDIMENT 

As  explained  in  the  description  of  storage  bat- 
teries used  in  vehicle  service,  the  “Pasted  Type” 
plate  is  used  in  practically  all  cases.  Throughout 
the  life  of  the  plates,  the  active  material  is  slowly 
disintegrated  and  forced  off  the  plate  surface,  grad- 
ually finding  its  way  to  the  sediment  space  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jar.  Practically,  there  are  two  limits 
lo  the  allowable  amount  of  sediment.  When  the 
plate  has  lost  sufficient  active  material  to  reduce  its 
capacity  abnormally  then  it  is  more  economical  to 
install  new  plates  than  to  operate  with  the  old.  If 
the  space  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar  should  not  be  sf- 
ficient  lo  accommodate  the  total  amount  of  sedi- 
ment forced  off  the  plates  before  this  condition, 
then  it  will  be  necessary  to  dismantle  the  cells  and 
remove  the  sediment  in  order  to  prevent  short- 
circuiting  of  the  plates  by  the  waste  material.  The 
proper  adjustment  of  these  two  limitations  is  taken 
care  of  in  design,  by  the  proportioning  of  the  cells, 
but  as  space  is  not  sufficient  in  the  electric  vehicle 
to  allow  larger  size  jars  than  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary, it  is  found  more  practicable  to  remove  the  sed- 
iment from  the  cells  at  intervals.  This  is  not  true 
in  all  cases  as  there  is  a strong  tendency  at  this 
time  to  assemble  medium  thin  or  thin  plates  in  high 
bridge  jars  so  that  no  cleaning  is  required  during 
the  life  of  the  positive  plates.  The  positive  plates 
are  those,  which  are  deteriorated  most  rapidly  inas- 


82 


much  as  the  active  material  of  the  positive  plate  is 
very  much  less  coherent  than  the  active  material  of 
the  negative  plate.  Hitherto  it  has  been  considered 
good  practice  to  subject  a set  of  positive  plates  to 
one  cleaning  during  their  life  and  using  one  set  of 
negative  plates  with  two  sets  of  positives.  As  men- 
tioned above,  however,  the  introduction  of  thinner 
plates  and  special  types  of  positive  plates  has  devel- 
oped the  design  of  a negative  plate  of  life  of  ap- 
proximately that  of  the  positive  plates  with  which 
it  is  to  operate. 

By  these  means,  under  certain  conditions  of  ser- 
vice where  these  types  of  plates  are  recommended, 
cleaning  is  avoided.  The  process  is  given  in  de- 
tail, as  it  is  standard  practice  to  remove  the  sedi- 
ment from  the  cells  except  in  the  cases  mentioned. 

The  length  of  time  for  which  a battery  would 
operate  without  necessitating  cleaning,  depends 
upon  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  service  and  cannot 
be  predetermined  accurately,  in  fact,  that  is  not  nec- 
essary. The  better  the  treatment  and  handling  that 
the  battery  receives,  the  less  frequent  will  be  the  re- 
moval of  sediment.  Increasing  quantities  of  sedi- 
ment make  themselves  known  by  decreasing  capac- 
ity, the  more  conspicuously  by  the  gradual  decrease 
in  specific  gravity  taken  when  fully  charged.  This 
material  resting  at  the  bottom  absorbs  the  sulphate 
of  the  acid,  decreasing  its  density  so  that  ordinarily 
when  the  density  has  fallen  below  1.250,  over  the 
cells  of  a fully  charged  battery,  it  may  safely  be  as- 
sumed that  the  cause  is  due  to  the  collection  of  sedi- 
ment, provided  that  water  has  not  been  added  to 


88 


compensate  for  solution  spilled  or  slopped  from  the 
jars. 

After  50  to  75  discharges,  one  cell  of  the  number 
should  be  cut  out,  the  depth  of  sediment  recorded, 
and  replaced.  In  doing  this,  the  element  should  be 
removed  without  disturbing  the  separators  and 
without  shaking  up  the  sediment  while  pouring  out 
the  acid.  Should  only  a small  quantity  of  sediment 
be  found,  then  the  cell  should  be  washed  out,  the 
element  replaced,  solution  returned  and  the  cell 
burned  into  position.  An  estimate  of  the  growth  of 
sediment  may  be  formed  from  this,  as  to  the  length 
of  time  necessary  before  cleaning,  when  the  sedi- 
ment has  reached  to  a height  of  below  the  bot- 
tom of  the  plates.  Checks  may  be  made  upon  the 
rising  of  the  sediment  level  by  removing  other  cells 
at  intervals  for  inspection. 

When  sufficient  material  has  accumulated  to 
reach  to  within  below  the  plates,  then  the  bat- 
tery should  be  given  an  overcharge  and  the  cells 
disconnected. 

Where  ‘"L”  or  ''T’’  straps  are  used,  a hack-saw 
is  most  convenient  for  cutting  the  cells  apart.  If 
they  are  assembled  with  pillar  straps^  then  a 
drill,  in  a carpenter's  brace,  can  be  used  to  bore 
down  to  the  depth  of  the  strap  allowing  the  con- 
nector to  be  easily  removed.  If  they  are  handled 
carefully  in  this  manner  they  may  be  readily  burned, 
in  reassembling  without  renewal.  The  use  of  a 
Connector  Puller  as  illustrated  and  described  on 
page  106  will  be  convenient  in  disconnecting  cells. 


84 


Care  should  be  given  in  the  use  of  tools,  so  that  the 
rubber  jars  or  covers  are  not  damaged.  If  the  cells 
have  been  sealed,  the  sealing  compound  may  be 
readily  removed  by  means  of  a hot  putty  knife. 

If  the  battery  is  to  be  cleaned  and  immediately 
reassembled,  then  one  cell  should  be  handled  at  a 
time,  other^vise  if  the  battery  is  to  be  left  out  of 
commission  then  the  treatment  need  not  be  limited 
to  a single  cell.  The  element  should  be  lifted 
from  the  cell  carefully  and  placed  horizontally  on 
a clean  bench,  the  plates  resting  on  their  edges. 
Spreading  the  plates  gently,  the  hard  rubber  and 
wood  separators  should  be  removed  and  the  groups 
separated.  If  the  wood  separators  are  not  in  very 
good  condition,  they  should  be  discarded  and  new 
ones  used  in  reassembling.  But  if  they  are  in  good 
condition,  then  they  must  be  kept  wet  either  by 
being  frequently  sprinkled  with  water  or  immersed 
in  a vessel  of  pure  water  or  electrolyte  after  being 
washed.  The  positive  group  should  be  rinsed  very 
carefully  so  that  loose  sediment  may  be  washed  oflf 
but  no  damage  done  to  the  plate  by  a strong  stream. 

The  negative  plates  should  also  be  rinsed  care- 
fully and  if  the  active  material  has  expanded  ap- 
preciably pressed  back  into  place.  This  operation  is 
accomplished  by  inserting  clean  pieces  of  wood  be- 
tween the  plates  of  the  negative  group.  The  thick- 
ness of  these  strips  should  be  approximately  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  positive  plate  with  wood  and 
rubber  separators  so  that  the  joints  of  lugs  and 
straps  may  not  be  strained.  The  group  may  then 


85 


be  placed  in  the  press  and  the  spongy  lead  forced 
back  into  position. 

The  spongy  lead,  when  exposed  to  the  air  will 
quickly  absorb  oxygen  and  be  oxidized  with  con- 
siderable heating.  The  oxidation  may  be  removed 
by  long  charging,  but  it  is  not  well  to  allow  the 
plates  to  heat  excessively,  so  they  should  be 
sprinkled  with  pure  water  in  order  to  prevent  it  and 
reassembled,  placed  in  the  jar  and  the  acid  added  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  positive  plates  will  not  heat 
in  the  air  and  need  no  such  attention. 

Having  thoroughly  washed  the  jars,  the  element, 
assembled  as  in  the  case  of  a new  battery,  is  placed 
carefully  in  the  jar  and  the  solution  added  without 
delay.  Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  assembly  is  correct  in  all  details  as  explained  on 
(page  51).  If  the  old  separators  have  been  used, 
then  the  jars  should  be  filled  with  electrolyte  of  the 
same  specific  gravity  as  that  previously  in  the  cell. 
If,  however,  new  wood  separators  have  been  used, 
then  the  acid  should  be  40  points  (.040)  higher  than 
when  the  cell  was  dismantled,  in  order  to  compen- 
sate for  the  water  in  the  new  separators.  After  re- 
placing the  separator  holddowns  and  hard  rubber 
covers,  the  cells  may  be  placed  in  the  trays  and 
after  going  over  the  assembly  with  a low  reading 
voltmeter  to  determine  the  correct  polarities,  burned 
together.  The  trays  and  connections  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  before  the  cells  are  returned  to 
positon.  A weak  alkaline  solution,  such  as  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  (baking  soda),  in  water,  may  be 


86 


used  for  this  purpose  after  which  the  trays,  when 
dry,  should  be  given  a treatment  of  acid  proof  paint. 
Inspection  should  be  made  to  see  that  all  connec- 
tions are  correct  and  secure. 

The  battery  should  be  given  a charge  at  the  fin- 
ishing rate  (pages  27-36),  and  continued  until  the 
voltage  and  specific  gravity  of  each  cell  has  ceased 
to  rise  for  a period  of  ten  (10)  hours. 

It  is  recommended  that  a test  discharge  b@  made 
before  placing  in  service  so  that  the  condition  of 
each  cell  may  be  found  correct.  The  capacity  will 
be  slightly  less  after  cleaning  than  before,  but  will 
increase  as  the  battery  is  worked. 

DIFFICULTIES  AND  THEIR  EVASION 

Of  the  different  parts  of  the  electric  vehicle,  the 
storage  battery  is  the  most  important  and  while  re- 
sponsible for  some  deficiencies  is  not  open  to  crit- 
icism for  everything  that  goes  wrong  with  the  ve- 
hicle. A general  tendency  has  been  to  find  that 
there  is  something  wrong  and  then  assume  without 
question  that  it  is  the  battery.  Besides  being  un- 
just, such  an  assumption  is  not  always  founded  on 
fact. 

The  battery  is  rated  in  ampere  hours  and  not  in 
miles  so  that  if  the  roads  be  heavy  due  to  mud  or 
snow,  or  if  the  brakes  bind,  the  ampere  draw  will 
be  increased  and  the  mileage  necessarily  reduced. 
Brakes,  motor  bearings  and  connections  should  be 
frequently  inspected  so  that  the  energy  consumed 
in  running  may  be  as  small  as  possible.  Inefficient 
tires  are  very  often  a source  of  trouble.  Such  tires 


87 


may  consume  more  current  in  locomotion  than  all 
the  elements  of  vehicle  and  load  put  together. 

However,  should  the  vehicle  with  the  exception 
of  the  battery  be  found  in  good  order,  then  it  is 
reasonable  to  look  there  for  the  trouble.  The  most 
common  difficulties  encountered  in  the  operation  of 
lead  storage  batteries  in  vehicle  service  are  the 
following: 

1.  Loss  of  Capacity.  I.oss  of  capacity  of  the 
battery  may  be  occasioned  by  avoidable  or  unavoid- 
able causes.  The  unavoidable  causes  are  accident 
and  the  natural  wear  and  tear  incident  to  its  opera- 
tion in  rigorous  service,  presuming  the  correct  care. 
The  avoidable  causes  are  lack  of  care  either  in  hand- 
ling the  battery  in  the  garage  or  in  operating  the 
vehicle  on  the  highways.  This  includes  allowing 
to  stand  in  a discharged  condition,  failure  to  repair 
as  soon  as  possible  after  the  development  of  a leaky 
jar  or  internal  short  circuit,  failure  to  remove  sedi- 
ment before  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  plates  and 
allowing  impurities  such  as  iron,  chlorine,  copper, 
and  organic  matter  to  find  their  way  into  the  elec- 
trolyte. The  specific  reasons  for  loss  of  capacity 
and  their  remedies  are  given  under  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  as 
they  all  affect  the  capacity  or  output  of  the  battery. 

2.  Sulphation.  Sulphation,  or  the  presence  of 
lead  sulphate  in  the  active  material  of  the  plate  in 
hardened  form,  not  reduced  by  usual  charging  is 
produced  by  allowing  the  battery  to  stand  in  a dis- 
charged condition  or  by  continued  undercharge. 
It  stands  to  reason  that  if  the  battery  is  given 


88 


the  small  amount  of  necessary  care  as  required, 
then  sul])halion  can  only  be  due  to  accidental 
cause,  which  is  either  avoidable  or  unavoidable. 
Assuming  that  with  the  slight  education  nec- 
essary that  only  the  unavoidable  will  remain,  there 
should  be  very  little  possibility  of  damage  from 
this  cause.  The  remedy  should  be  immediate  and 
thorough  as  the  effects  are  additive.  A thorough 
overcharge  at  a low  rate  followed  by  several  cycles 
of  charge  and  discharge  will  usually  be  sufficient  to 
bring  the  battery  back  into  good  condition. 

3.  Reversal  of  the  Plates.  This  is  a difficulty 
which  arises  only  in  rare  instances  but  might  occur 
when  the  cell  loses  capacity  and  during  the  discharge 
its  capacity  is  exhausted  before  that  of  the  other 
cells,  resulting  in  current  being  forced  through  it, 
reversing  its  plates.  Under  usual  conditions  this  is 
not  a very  probable  difficulty  providing  that  a regu- 
lar inspection  of  voltage  and  gravity  are  made,  but, 
should  it  be  found,  then  the  treatment  described  for 
Sulphation  (No.  2),  will  usually  bring  the  cell  back 
into  condition. 

4.  Shedding  of  Active  Material.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  plates  of  the  storage  battery  are  made  to 
give  the  maximum  life  with  the  maximum  capacity 
during  that  life,  but  it  is  only  reasonable  to  allow 
that  they  wear  out.  In  this  respect  they  are  almost 
human  and  during  the  life  of  the  plates  the  capacity 
gradually  decreases  until  finally  it  is  more  econom- 
ical to  scrap  them  and  install  new.  This  is  an  un- 
avoidable cause  and  can  be  tempered  only  by  giving 
the  little  attention  necessary  at  the  correct  time.  The 

89 


main  cause  of  shedding  or  loss  of  the  particles  of 
active  material  is  excessive  gassing.  The  loss 
of  the  minute  quantities  from  the  plate  under  the 
violent  gassing  shortens  the  life  of  the  plate.  This 
is  probably  the  most  important  difficulty  and  the 
remedy  consists  only  in  prevention  which  is  sim- 
plicity itself.  Permit  only  moderate  gassing  at  all 
times. 

5.  Corrosion  of  Plates.  As  the  battery  in  whole 
or  part  is  furnished  by  the  manufacturer  it  is  chem- 
ically pure  so  far  as  harmful  impurities  are  con- 
cerned and  if  distilled  water  and  chemically  pure 
sulphuric  acid  alone  be  used  during  the  useful  life 
there  need  be  no  cause  for  trouble.  However, 
should  impurities  such  as  copper,  iron,  mercury, 
chlorine,  nitric  acid,  platinum,  organic  matter,  etc., 
be  introduced  the  passage  of  current  will  cause 
them  to  react  upon  or  corrode  the  active  material 
of  the  plates.  Necessarily  this  will  reduce  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  cells  as  it  will  reduce  the  amount  of 
active  material  effective  in  useful  chemical  reac- 
tion. The  remedy  consists  in  removing  the  corro- 
sive agent.  This  is  described  under  ^'Electrolyte,’’ 
page  72. 

6.  Temperature.  At  high  temperatures  chem- 
ical action  takes  place  more  vigorously  and  physi- 
cal effects  are  more  pronounced.  Thus  the  action 
of  hot  acid  upon  the  plates  and  separators  is  unnec- 
essarily severe  for  the  service  rendered,  resulting  in 
reduced  life.  The  physical  efifect  of  the  heat  upon 


90 


ihc  rubber  jars  is  to  warp  ibeni.  It  is  a simple  matter 
under  all  usual  conditions  to  keep  the  cell  tempera- 
ture well  below  iio°  F.,  but  should  it  reach  this 
limit  on  charge  then  the  current  should  be  inter- 
rupted until  normal  temperature  has  been  attained. 

Extremely  low  temperatures  will  cause  a tempo- 
rary decrease  in  capacity.  Bringing  the  battery  to 
its  normal  operating  condition,  however,  will  make 
the  total  capacity  available.  Only  in  the  most  un- 
usual instances  are  difficulties  of  this  nature  ex- 
perienced. Acid  of  1. 130  specific  gravity  will  freeze 
at  0°  F.,  but  1.275  acid  will  not  freeze  at  40°  below 
zero. 


TAKING  OUT  OF  COMMISSION. 

Under  certain  conditions  of  service  the  battery 
may  be  allowed  to  stand  for  days  or  perhaps  weeks 
at  a time  without  being  discharged,  in  which  case 
it  is  necessary  only  to  maintain  the  proper  level  of 
^2"  above  the  plates  for  the  electrolyte  by  the  addi- 
tion of  pure  water  and  to  keep  in  a charged  condi- 
tion. Ordinarily  it  is  not  necessary  to  charge  un- 
less over  50%  of  the  capacity  has  been  discharged, 
but  if  the  battery  is  to  stand  idle  for  weeks  it 
should  be  fully  charged,  and  in  the  case  of  the  bat- 
tery which  is  to  remain  idle  for  several  months,  it 
should  at  least  be  given  an  overcharge  before  and 
immediately  after  the  period  of  idleness.  The  best 
practice  is  to  give  an  overcharge  once  in  two  weeks 
and  not  less  in  any  case  than  once  a month.  Where 
the  battery  is  to  stand  without  use  for  over  four 
months  or  facilities  are  not  available  for  giving  the 


91 


periodic  overcharge  required,  then  it  is  best  to  take 
the  battery  apart  for  dry  storage.  Furthermore,  if 
the  battery  has  been  used  considerably  and  is  about 
ready  for  the  removal  of  sediment,  then  both  pur- 
poses can  be  served  at  the  same  time  by  taking  apart 
and  cleaning,  leaving  the  battery  ready  for  assembly 
when  needed.  The  length  of  time  during  which  a 
battery  may  stand  in  dry  storage  is  very  long,  as 
practically  no  changes  take  place  if  the  plates  have 
been  treated  properly. 

The  battery  should  be  given  an  overcharge  and 
dismantled  as  explained  under  '^Sediment,'’  page  • 
82.  The  positive  plates  should  be  rinsed  to  re- 
move any  loose  material  and  allowed  to  dry  when 
they  are  ready  for  storage.  In  most  cases  it  will  be 
found  more  practicable  to  discard  the  wooden  sep- 
arators. The  perforated  hard  rubber  separators, 
however,  may  be  washed  thoroughly  and  if  not 
damaged,  saved  for  future  use.  The  acid  may  be 
carefully  poured  into  a clean  carboy  and  saved. 
The  jars,  hold-downs,  connectors,  etc.,  unless  dam 
aged  should  also  be  very  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
stored. 

After  separating  the  groups  from  the  element, 
the  negative  plates  may  be  dipped  in  pure  water 
and  pressed  if  necessary. 

As  explained  under  ‘"Sediment,”  the  negatives 
will  heat  to  a certain  extent  while  drying  and  this 
should  be  kept  a minimum  by  sufficient  sprinkling 
of  pure  water.  The  evaporation  of  the  water  will 
absorb  the  heat  from  the  plates  and  allow  them 


92 


to  dry  comparatively  quickly  without  danger,  after 
which  they  may  be  put  in  storage  for  an  indefinite 
period. 

The  parts  should  be  placed  in  a dry  and  clean 
place  and  protected  from  dirt,  dampness,  etc. 

The  directions  for  putting  the  battery  into  serv- 
ice are  identical  with  those  given  for  assembling 
and  placing  in  commission  of  new  batteries.  In 
this  case,  however,  the  plate  lugs  remain  burned 
to  the  straps  and  unless  damaged  in  handling  need 
no  burning  as  do  the  plates  received  separately 
when  new. 


93 


BATTERY  ACCESSORY  SUGGESTIONS 

Hydrometer  syringe. 

Double  scale  portable  voltmeter  for  locating  low 
cells,  discharges,  etc. 

Earthenware  pitcher,  two~quart. 

Earthenware  crock,  5-10  gallons,  for  mixing  acid. 

Distilled  water  for  flushing. 

Carboy  of  1.300  electrolyte. 

Moderately  heavy  mineral  grease  for  greasing 
brass  terminals. 

Wire  jumpers  with  suitable  terminals  for  con- 
necting trays  when  charging  outside  of  the  vehicle. 

Extra  jars  and  covers. 

Bench  or  platform  truck  to  hold  battery  when 
outside  of  vehicle. 

Rubber  gloves. 

Thermometer. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda. 


»4 


LEAD  BURNING— MANIPULATION  OF 

HYDROGEN  GENERATORS 

111  the  preceding  pages  frequent  mention  is  made 
of  the  method- of  connecting  the  plates  into  groups 
and  the  groups  of  one  cell  to  those  of  the  next  by 
means  of  'dead  burning’'  the  connection.  Lead 
burning,  as  explained  on  [)age  24,  consists  in  a)) 
plying  a llame  of  sufficient  heat  to  the  cleaned 
lead  parts  to  make  them  melt  and  flow  together. 
In  this  operation  solder  is  not  used  but  pure  lead 
in  stick  or  bar  form,  for  convenience  in  handling, 
is  used  to  supply  the  filling.  This  requires  very 
little  elucidation  as  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  the 
lead  joint  is  very  easily  made  since  this  metal  has 
a very  low  melting  point  and  it  is  not  oxidized 
freely  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

The  flame  which  is  used  to  melt  the  metal  at  the 
point  of  application  is  known  as  a hydrogen  flame 
and  is  concentrated  and  non-oxidizing  and  is  se- 
cured in  a relatively  simple  manner,  namely  by  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  zinc.  The  acid  at- 
tacks the  zinc  and  produces  hydrogen  gas  which 
is  conducted  through  a bottle  of  water  "O”  (Fig. 
17)  to  wash  out  and  remove  acid  spray  or  zinc 
dust,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  flame  being  drawn 
back  into  the  generator  causing  an  explosion.  The 
gas,  conducted  to  the  Burner’s  Tee  is  mixed  with 
air  at  a slight  pressure,  forcing  it  out  of  the  burn- 
ing tip  with  a small  hot  flame. 

The  complete  outfit  necessary  for  lead  burning 
consists  of  the  following  parts : 

One  hydrogen  gas  generator. 


95 


One  bottle  or  trap  (for  cleaning  the  gas  and 
preventing  the  flame  from  drawing  back  into  the 
generator). 

One  air  pump. 

One  air  tank. 

One  lead  burner^s  mixing  tee. 

One  length  of  150'  of  5/16"  soft  rubber  tubing 
(cut  into  lengths  as  per  requirements). 


One  blowpipe. 

Set  of  tips  for  burning. 

The  size  of  the  generator  will  depend  upon  the 
number  of  flames  to  be  furnished  from  it.  Size 
No.  I is  generally  used  when  but  one  flame  is  to 
be  operated,  while  size  No.  2 or  larger  is  used 
depending  upon  the  number  of  flames  to  be  fur« 
nished. 


06 


Operation.  When  the  generator  is  connected 
for  use,  the  parts  will  be  arranged  as  shown  in  the 
diagrammatic  sketch  shown  on  page  96,  in  which 
'‘a’’  shows  the  hydrogen  generator,  ‘‘b’'  the  wash- 
ing bottle  or  trap  and  ‘'c’’  the  air  reservoir.  The 
bottle  should  be  tilled  about  two-thirds  full  with 
water  and  connection  made  to  the  generator  by 
the  tubing  ''K-T'  allowing  the  tubing  to  reach  to 
the  bottom  of  the  bottle  as  shown  in  the  drawing 
'‘h”  Should  this  bottle  become  heated,  it  should 
either  be  placed  in  a pail  of  cold  water,  reaching 
to  its  neck,  and  the  water  replaced  from  time  to 
time  as  it  becomes  hot  or  immersed  in  cold  run- 
ning water.  The  required  amount  of  granular  zinc 
(''spelter”),  broken  into  pieces  sufficiently  small 
to  allow  their  insertion  at  the  opening  "L”  should 
be  put  in  the  generator  and  the  cover  "J”  clamped 
down  securely.  Into  the  upper  portion  of  the  gen- 
erator "M”  the  proper  amount  of  water  is  then 
added  before  pouring  the  required  amount  of  acid, 
"Oil  of  Vitriol”  (Sulphuric  Acid,  but  not  chemi- 
cally pure).  Remember  that  the  acid  is  to  be 
poured  into  the  water  and  very  carefully  to  pre- 
vent splashing  out.  Should  any  acid  find  its  way 
onto  the  skin,  oil  should  be  applied  rather  than  wa- 
ter. The  main  point  is  to  get  it  off  quickly. 

The  length  of  hose  from  the  mixing  valves  "D” 
and  "E”‘  to  "G”  should  be  no  longer  than  neces- 
sary for  convenient  handling  so  that  the  gas  and 
air  valves  "D”  and  "E”  can  be  within  ready  reach 
and  easy  control  of  the  operator.  The  air  pump 
"A”  is  used  to  create  the  air  pressure  in  the  reser- 


97 


voir  so  that  when  the  pumping  is  discontinued  the 
cock  “B’’  is  closed  until  further  pumping  is  neces- 
sary. The  cock  ''C’’  is^  opened  and  with  that  of 
‘‘D’’  closed  the  gas  is  allowed  to  escape  from  the 
burning  tip  by  opening  the  cock  ''E/’  and  is 
lighted  with  a match  or  candle.  When  the  gas  is 
ignited  ''D’’  is  opened  and  the  flame  regulated  by 
closing  '‘E’’  until  the  adjustment  gives  a flame 
which  will  melt  the  lead  leaving  a clean  bright  sur- 
face. Trial  of  scrap  lead  will  show  a correct  ad- 
justment and  the  flame  is  then  ready  for  use. 

The  size  of  the  burning  tip  used  will  depend  upon 
the  character  of  work  to  be  done ; usually  all  the 
lead  burning  required  in  vehicle  work  can  be  ac- 
complished with  the  tips  with  small  holes.  The 
adjustment  of  gas  and  air  will  also  vary  the  size 
and  flame  to  suit  almost  all  conditions. 

The  apparatus  should  be  set  up  in  such  a m^an- 
ner  that  there  is-  no  possibility  of  water  discharg- 
ing over  into  the  tube  between  ''H’'  and  ''E’’  as  it 
is  evident  that  this  would  discontinue  the  flame 
and  add  dirty  water  either  onto  the  straps  or  bars 
or  into  the  cells.  Should  vv^'ater  be  formed  by  con- 
densation in  this  length  of  tubing,  however,  it  may 
be  removed  by  kinking  the  hose  between  ‘'K’‘  and 
'T,’’  detaching  the  tubing  at  and  allowing  the 
pressure  in  the  air  tank  to  force  the  water  out  by 
opening  the  cocks  “E/’  and  ''C.” 

The  amounts  of  zinc  given  in  the  table  are  usu- 
ally sufficient  for  three  renewals  of  water  and  acid* 
so  that  when  the  charge  is  exhausted  or  the  opera- 
tion is  discontinued  for  a night  m any  period, _ th^ 

9$ 


solution  should  be  drawn  ofif  and  the  generator 
flushed  out  with  water  poured  into  the  upper  cham- 
ber. The  new  acid  should  not  be  added  until  it 
is  to  be  used.  Before  discharging  the  solution 
from  the  generator,  the  tubing  at  ‘‘H’’  and  ‘‘K’" 
should  be  removed  before  taking  out  the  rubber 
plug  at  ‘‘N.’’  As  this  acid  solution  is  corrosive,  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  any- 
thing near  to  it  or  be  thrown  where  it  may  have 
opportunity  to  damage  the  boarding,  asphalt,  ce- 
ment, etc.  When  discharged  into  the  plumbing, 
the  latter  should  be  well  flushed  immediately  in 
order  to  prevent  any  action  upon  the  piping  or  fit- 
tings. 

Its  action  upon  most  substances  can  be  counter- 
acted by  the  quick  application  of  alkaline  sub- 
stances such  as  ammonia,  washing  soda  and  the 
commercial  cleaning  compounds  (‘^Gold  Dust,'’ 
''Dutch  Cleanser,”  "Pearline,”  etc.). 

MATERIAL  REQUIRED  IN  STARTING  UP 
A GENERATOR 

Size  of 

Generator  Zinc  Water  Vitriol 

No.  I 15"  X 15"  20  lbs.  9 gals.  2 gals. 

No.  2 18"  X 18"  25  lbs.  12  gals.  “3  gals. 

If  the  work  does  not  demand  the  quantity  of 
hydrogen  generated  in  this  apparatus  then  tanks 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  or  compressed  air  may  be 
purchased  and  readily  connected  to.  the  mixing  tee. 
If  there  is  available  a supply  of  air  under  pres- 
sure, then  the  tank  of  compressed  air  may  be  dis- 


99 


pensed  with.  It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  use 
a reducing  valve  as  two  (2)  pounds  pressure  per 
square  inch  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
Figures  No.  12  and  13  show  the  burning  box  and 
burning  rack  used  in  burning  the  plates  into  the 
straps. 

A device  for  accomplishing  the  results  given  bv 
the  hydrogen  flame  is  shown  in  (Fig.  18)  and  con- 
sists of  a clamp  with  insulated  wire  attached  to  a 
carbon  electrode  mounted  on  an  insulated  handle. 


The  clamp  is  attached  to  the  connecting  strap  of  a 
cell  near  the  one  upon  which  the  burning  is  to  be 
done.  In  this  manner  by  connecting  across  5 cells, 
a potential  of  ten  volts  is  available  for  the  arc.  The 
connections  should  be  made  so  that  the  carbon  is 
the  negative  pole.  The  carbon  may  then  be  used 
as  a soldering  iron.  The  materials  used  in  this  case 


100 


are  identical  vvitli  those  used  in  the  operation  of  tlie 
hydrogen  flame  excepting  that  the  heat  is  produced 
by  the  arc  instead  of  the  hydrogen  generator.  In 
work  involving  the  use  of  an  arc  it  is  always  well 
. to  wear  blue  glasses  to  protect  the  eyes. 

Where  neither  of  these  methods  are  available 
for  mending  connections,  as  for  instance,  the  break- 
ing of  a connector  upon  the  road,  a soldered  joint 
may  be  made  for  temporary  use.  This,  however, 
is  only  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  garage 
where  the  proper  treatment  can  be  given. 

At  all  times  when  the  parts  of  the  cells  are  lead 
burned  or  the  elements  connected,  care  must  be 
given  that  strips  of  lead  or  pieces  of  solder  do  not 
gain  access  to  the  ceil  or  flow  between  the  plates 
as  this  'Towdown^'  would  be  likely  to  make  con- 
tact between  the  plates,  contaminate  the  electro- 
lyte or  do  other  damage. 


101 


CHAPTER  IV. 


COMMERCIAL  TYPES  OF  LEAD  STORAGE 
BATTERIES 

(Arranged  alphabetically) 

Electric  Storage  Battery  Company,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  “Exide” 

This  company  produces  four  distinct  types  of 
battery  for  this  purpose,  known  respectively  un- 
der the  trade-names  of  ''Exide,’’  '^Hycap-Exide,'' 
“Thin-Exide’^  and  ‘Iron-Clad-Exide.’’ 

The  standard  Exide  plate  was  the  first  of  the 
four  and  is  still  in  very  wide  use  throughout  the 
country,  giving  satisfaction  where  it  is  used  in 
the  proper  application.  The  ''Hycap-Exide” 
plate  is  of  the  same  size  in  length  and  breadth  but 
is  not  as  thick,  so  that  more  plates  may  be  as- 
sembled in  the  same  size  jar  as  used  for  the 
‘‘Exide'’  plate  and  is  intended  for  use  where  the 
daily  mileage  consumed  is  greater  than  that  af- 
forded by  the  “Exide."  ,The  daily  mileage  pro- 
cured from  the  “Hycap-Exide"  will  be  greater 
than  that  from  the  “Exide"  but  the  total  mile- 
age under  average  conditions  will  be  approxi- 
mately the  same.  The  type  of  grid  used  in  these 
plates,  shown  in  (Fig.  8,  p.  21)  is  known  as  the 
“staggered  bar  type"  and  serves  as  a very  ef- 
fective container  for  the  active  material  which 
receives  special  treatment,  the  result  of  many 
years  of  experimenting. 

The  “Exide"  and  “Hycap-Exide"  type  plates 


102 


are  each  made  in  two  sizes  known  as  and 

‘TV.’’  The  length  and  thickness  of  the  ‘TV” 
plate  is  identical  with  that  of  the  “MV”  plate, 
of  the  corresponding  type,  but  the  width  is  re- 
duced from  5%"  to  4 13/16"  or  a reduction  of 
about  16%.  The  ‘TV”  type  plate  is  used  where 
the  output  required  is  somewhat  less  than  that 
.required  from  the  “MV”  type  plate. 


The  “Thin-Exide”  plate  has  the  same  general 
dimensions  in  length  and  width  as  the  preceding 
types  but  being  thinner  the  manufacturers  state 
that  even  greater  mileage  may  be  secured  upon 
a single  charge  of  the  battery  than  from  the 
“Hycap-Exide”  plate.  The  total  mileage,  how- 
ever, during  the  life  of  the  plates  as  compared 
with  either  the  “Hycap-Exide”  or  “Exide”  plates 
should  be  about  the  same.  The  statement  is 


POSITIVE. 


NEGATIVE, 


Fig.  19 — “Iron-Clad-Exide”  Plates. 


103 


also  made  that  where  the  daily  mileage  given  by 
either  the  ''Hycap-Exide’'  or  ‘Thin-Exide’’  plates 
is  not  required,  the  ''Exide''  should  be  used  and 
will  be  found  more  satisfactory  from  the  stand- 
point of  service  and  economy. 

Within  the  past  few  years  this  Company  has 
introduced  and  placed  large  quantities  of  cells 


Fig.  20 — Iron-Clad 
Exide  Assembly. 


in  service  equipped  with  a positive  plate  known 
as  an  ‘Iron-Clad-Exide.’’ 

This  plate  known  also  as  the  ‘^Pencil  Positive' 
Plate  is  shown  in  (Fig.  19).  The  manufacturers 
find  that  in  this  plate  greater  effective  surface  is 


104 


secured  for  the  active  material,  giving  greater 
capacity  than  the  ‘'Exide’’  plate  and  that  by  this 
design  a life  of  tAvo  or  three  times  that  of  the 
“Exide’’  is  obtained. 

The  active  material  is  held  in  the  rubber  (Fig. 
21 ) in  such  a manner  that  ordinaiy  wear  and 
tear  will  not  dislodge  it  with  the  same  rapidity 
that  will  obtain  in  the  ‘‘Exide’'  so  that  the  ac- 
cumulation of  sediment  will  be  very  much  less 
rapid  and  the  useful  life  of  the  plates  will  have 
been  secured  before  it  is  necessary  to  take  the 


Fig.  22- 


"lrcncla{i‘i£xiic*’ 
-Cross-section  of 


“Iron-Clad-Exide”  Plates. 


Fig.  23 — Iron-Clad  Connectors. 

cells  apart  for  cleaning.  The  negative  plate  has 
the  same  characteristics  as  those  found  in  the 
''Exide’'  cell  but  in  this  case  is  made  slightly 
heavier  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  increased 
life  of  the  positive  plates  without  necessitating 
a renewal  before  the  life  of  the  positive  plates 
have  been  exhausted.  In  other  words,  it  is  in- 
tended that  the  life  of  both  positive  and  nega- 


305 


tive  plates  shall  be  equal.  In  the  assembly  of  the 
plates  a perforated  hard  rubber  sheet  separator 
is  not  required.  A thin  wood  separator  espe- 
cially treated  and  cross  grained  is  used,  how- 
ever. 

A flexible  connection  shown  in  connection  with 
the  description  of  the  cell  is  another  feature  char- 
acteristic of  the  ‘‘Iron-Clad’’  assembly.  Frequent 
reference  has  been  made  to  the  disconnecting  of 


Fig.  25 — Iron-Clad  Cell  Cover. 


Fig.  26 — Connector  Fuller  as  Applied. 
106 


cells  in  the  preceding  pages  and  the  method 
given,  that  of  drilling  through  the  strap  to  the 
pillar  post. 

A connector  puller  produced  by  this  Company 
is  designed  to  accomplish  this  result  in  a sim- 
ple and  effective  manner.  It  is  placed  around 
the  connection  as  shown  in  (Fig.  26)  and  shears 
the  connector  free  from  the  post  without  injury 
to  either,  so  that  the  connector  may  be  again 
used. 

Gould  Storage  Battery  Company,  New  York 
City 

The  plates  produced  by  this  Company  use  the 
staggered  bar  grid  which  has  been  found  very 
satisfactory  and  efficient  in  vehicle  battery  prac- 
tice. Numerous  experiments  and  years  of  serv- 
ice have  proven  this  statement  a fact.  The  claim 
is  made  by  the  manufacturers  that  the  active  ma- 
terial in  the  positive  plates  is  compounded  in  a 
manner  designed  by  a special  process  for  hard- 
ening without  entailing  loss  in  capacity,  the  prin- 
ciple being  the  use  in  service  of  a layer  of  active 
material  of  sufficient  thickness  to  give  the  neces- 
sary capacity  but  not  thick  enough  to  increase 
the  precipitation  of  sediment  (Fig.  27).  Prac- 
tically, this  works  out  well  for,  as  the  active  ma- 
terial falls  off  through  wear,  the  hard  material  in 
the  center  is  softened  at  approximately  the  same 
rate,  and  thus  maintains  a uniformly  thick  layer 
of  active  material  and  uniform  capacity  during 
the  life  of  the  plate. 


107 


From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  great  ef- 
fort has  been  expended  in  the  many  details  in- 
volved in  producing  plates  of  such  a character 


Fig.  '27— Gould  Type  “TH”  Positive  Plate. 

that  the  all  important  features  of  resistance  to 
wear,  retention  of  capacity  and  ability  to  with- 
stand severe  service  conditions,  such  as  dislodg- 


lOS 


iiig  of  active  material  through  overcharge  or 
damage  due  to  jarring,  may  be  secured.  The 
negative  plates  are  constructed  with  the  same 
ideas  in  mind,  and  an  effort  is  made  to  prevent 
shrinkage  and  softening  of  the  material,  which 
would  result  in  its  rapid  loss. 

The  plates  decrease  in  thickness  through  seven 
types  so  that  the  proper  size,  type  and  thickness 


Fig.  28— Gould  Type  “TH”  Cell. 


of  plate  is  available  for  each  class  of  vehicle  serv- 
ice. The  so-called  ''thick/'  or  "standard"  type 
plate  is  designated  by  this  Company  as  type  RP, 


109 


and  the  medium  “Hycap”  as  MC.  The  TH  and 
THS  are  the  thin  plate  types.  Types  NR,  NM 
and  NH  are  the  corresponding  designations  for 
the  thick,  medium  and  thin  plates  in  the  nar- 
rower style  of  plate.  These  types  include  the 
medium,  thin  and  high  capacity  thin  plates  as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  tables. 

In  the  higher  capacity  types  this  Company 
claims  to  have  succeeded  in  developing  combi- 
nations which  will  give  increased  total  mileage 
life  in  direct  proportion  to  the  increased  mileage 
per  discharge;  that  is,  the  total  number  of  dis- 
charges is  the  same  for  the  higher  capacity  type 
as  for  the  '‘standard’’  or  "thick”  plate,  so  that 
increased  mileage  per  discharge  results  in  in- 
creased total  mileage  life.  They  claim  this  is 
particularly  true  in  their  type  MC.  i 

The  detail  construction  of  batteries  and  their 
plate  combinations  are  designed  to  meet  the  gen- 
erally accepted  standards  of  vehicle  manufac- 
turers as  regards  number  of  plates  per  jar,  size 
of  jar,  medium  or  high  bridges,  different  forms 
of  connections  between  cells,  battery  accessories, 
etc.,  as  shown  in  Figure  28. 

Philadelphia  Storage  Battery  Company 

This  Company  has  developed  a very  success- 
ful type  of  plate  which  receives  its  name  from  the 
construction  of  the  frame,  the  "Diamond  Grid. 
Figure  29  shows  a skeleton  obtained  by  placing 
two  sheets  of  diagonal  lead  net  opposite  each 
other  and  allowing  space  between  for  the  active 
110 


material  so  that  when  the  compound  is  finally 
pressed  into  place  the  plate  is  given  a smooth 
surface  with  the  active  material  confined  within 
the  staggered  meshes.  These  staggered  diagonal 
members  are  designed  to  give  strength  for  re- 
sisting a buckling  or  warping  action  and  is  a 


firm  support  for  the  active  material  so  that  hard 
service  may  be  endured  through  a considerable 
life. 

The  Philadelphia  plates  are  made  in  the  thick, 


111 


medium,  thin  and  extra  thin  types  with  sizes  of 
each  type  varying  slightly  according  to  the  serv- 
ice application  in  order  that  the  minimum  weight 
with  the  maximum  life  and  capacity  may  be  se- 
cured. The  most  prominent  of  these  is  known 
as  the  ‘'WTX''  or  ''Diamond  X”  (Fig.  30),  an 


Fig.  SO — Philadelphia  Cell,  Type  “WTX.” 

extra  high  capacity  thin  plate  which  represents 
an  increase  of  approximately  54.5%  in  capacity 
over  the  Standard  thick  plate,  type  "W/'  The 


112 


positive  and  negative  plates  are  so  designed  and 
the  space  for  sediment  increased  with  extra  high 
ribs  (2^")  that  no  renewal  or  cleaning  is  neces- 
sary during  the  useful  life  of  the  battery.  This 
type  of  plate  is  recommended  by  the  makers  for 
the  majority  of  vehicle  battery  equipments  be- 
cause of  its  light  weight  and  the  extent  to  which 
the  chemical  actions  penetrate  its  body. 

United  States  Light  and  Heating  Co.,  N.  Y.  C., 
“USL” 


A glance  at  the  illustration  in  (Fig.  31)  will 
serve  to  show  the  method  of  construction  of  the 
staggered  bar  grid  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
this  plate.  The  “CB”  negative  grid  shows  a va- 
riation from  that  found  in  the  other  types.  The 
metal  web  is  perforated  so  that  triangular  prongs 
are  raised  from  the  sheet  metal  of  the  grid  and 
serve  to  firmly  hold  the  active  material  in  place. 
The  retention  of  a maximum  amount  of  active 
material  considering  weight  and  wear  is  claimed 
for  this  arrangement.  The  careful  methods  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  component  parts  and 
finished  plates  are  reflected  in  the  quality  of 
service  which  results. 

The  ribs  supporting  the  plates  are  furnished 
with  soft'  rubber  tops  so  that  the  vibration  and 
jarring  from  travel  over  bad  roads  will  be  cush- 
ioned and  reduced,  thus  eliminating  a source  of 
loss  of  active  material. 

The  types  of  plates  include  those  of  the  me- 
dium and  thick  design  so  that  the  fields  of  elec- 


113 


Fig.  31 — **USL**  Positive  Plate  and  Grid. 


114 


Fig.  32 — “USL”  Negative  Plate  and  Grid. 

Iric  vehicle  service  are  covered.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  plates  with  either  ‘‘L’’  or  ‘‘T’’  strap 
or  pillar  post  connectors  admits  of  flexibility  in 
the  methods  of  assembly  for  either  side  or  end 
assembling  of  cells.  The  bolt  connector  shown  in 
(Fig.  33)  makes  a still  more  flexible  arrangement 
where  the  latter  may  be  necessary. 


115 


Fig.  33— “USL” 


T Bolt  Strap  Cell. 


116 


Willard  Storage  Battery  Company,  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  “LBA” 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  ‘‘LBA’’  type  of  bat- 
tery a great  deal  of  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  perfecting  of  the  numerous  details  connected 
with  the  manipulation  of  the  battery  after  it  is 
put  into  the  user’s  hands.  These  include  jars 
with  heavy  walls  to  insure  against  breakage. 
These  jars  (Fig.  34)  are  furnished  in  two  depths 
so  that  should  a deep  space  be  required  for  the 
collection  of  sediment,  obviating  the  necessity 
of  cleaning,  the  deeper  cell  may  be  used.  The 


Fig.  34 — Jar  with  High  Mud  Space.  Fig.  85 — Pillar  Bolted  Top 

Connector. 


117 


connectors  are  made  in  either  the  pillar  type 
burned  link  or  the  unbreakable  connector  formed 


Fig.  36 — Copper  Plate  Top  Connector. 


Fig.  37 — Vent  Plug. 


by  using  lead  plated  copper  as  a connecting  me- 
dium (Figs.  35  i&  36).  For  use  where  quick  con- 


Fig.  38 — Cover  with  Gasket. 


necting  or  disconnecting  may  be  required,  the 
pillar  posts  are  threaded  to  accommodate  the 
bolted  top  connector  screw  which  secures  the 
bolted  connector  into  place.  In  addition  to  these 


118 


features,  the  plates  may  be  assembled  with  either 
the  '‘U'  strap  or  ‘'T''  strap  connectors.  A vent 
plug  is  furnished  as  shown  in  section  in  (Fig. 
37)  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  gas  to  es- 


Fig.  39 — Cover  in  Place. 


Fig.  40 — Cover  for  'Deep  Sealing. 


cape  without  carrying  electrolyte  spray  with  it. 

The  plates  (Fig.  41)  are  of  the  staggered  bar 
grid  construction  with  active  material  pressed 
firmly  into  place  leaving  a flat  surface  and  are 
made  in  the  heavy,  medium  and  thin  types.  Last- 
ly, covers  (Figs.  38-39)  are  available  for  these  cells 
which  permit  quick  sealing  by  the  use  of  a pure 
soft  rubber  gasket.  This  allows  the  cover  to 
be  inserted  over  the  gasket  sealing  the  jar  im- 
mediately and  just  as  readily  removable.  Where 
this  is  not  necessary  the  cover  is  furnished  so 


119 


that  deep  sealing  with  compound  can  be  accom- 
plished with  little  trouble  by  the  extra  wall  shown 
in  the  sketch  (Fig.  40). 


Fig.  41 — Willard  Cell,  Showing  Construction. 


120 


CHAPTER  V. 

ALKALINE  STORAGE  BATTERIES  (EDI- 
SON BATTERY)  : DESCRIPTION  AND 
CARE 

Of  this  class  of  cells  there  is  but  one  combina- 
tion of  elements  which  has  met  v/ith  practical  suc- 
cess. The  Edison  battery  has  the  same  general 


Fig.  42 — Positive  and  Negative  Plates. 


characteristics  as  the  lead  battery  but  no  lead  is 
used  in  its  construction  and  the  electrolyte  is  a solu- 
tion of  caustic  potash  instead  of  sulphuric  acid. 


121 


The  peculiarities  of  construction  and  the  character 
of  the  materials  used  enable  the  manufacturers 
to  claim  a long  term  of  service  for  the  cells. 


Fig.  43 — 

Positive 
Tube. 


Fig.  44 — Type  A-4  Cell  As- 
sembled, but  Removed  from 
Container. 


Fig.  45 — Negative 

Pocket. 


The  grids  for  both  positive  and  negative  plates 
are  stampings  from  sheet  steel.  These,  as  well  as 
all  other  steel  parts  used  in  the  assembled  cell  are 
nickel  plated  to  prevent  corrosion.  The  active  ma- 


122 


terial  is  contained  in  tubes  or  pockets,  fastened  rig- 
idly to  the  supporting  frame  or  grid  and  giving 
electrical  conductivity. 


flLUt»lCAP  yPOSlTiwt  POlC 


VAcve 


'''.COPPtP  WIRE  SWE06E0 
^INTOSrttL  LUO 

8 '■cell  cover  WElOEO 
TO  CONTAINER 
$TumN6  BO* 
f^^^wELO  TO  COVER 
IiI^SlANO  RIN6 
yp5P*CIN6  WAShER 
connecting  rod 
jjy— POSITIVE  6RiO 


CELL  COvtR- 


NEGATivt  GRID- 


'QATiVt  POCKLT- 
[IRON  OAIOE] 


^6RlO  separator 

‘SEAMLESS  STEEL 
RINGS 


Pin  insulator- 


7 positive  Tube 
[nickel  MVORaTE  anc 
[nickel  in  layers 


Side  rod  insulator. 


■ SUSPENSION  BOSS 


SOLID  STEEL^ 
CONTAINER 


.CELL  BOTTOM  , 
IwELOCD  TO  SIDES] 


Fig.  46 — Type  A-4  Cell  Assembly. 


The  positive  plate  (Fig.  42)  is  built  of  hori- 
zontal rows  of  fifteen  (15)  vertical  cylindrical 
steel  tubes  containing  the  active  material  nickel  hy- 
drate, interspersed  in  thin  layers  with  pure  nickel 
flakes.  These  flakes  are  used  to  give  good  con- 
ductivity between  the  hydrate  and  the  tubes.  These 
tubular  containers  (Fig.  43)  are  made  of  very  thin 


123 


steel  ribbon,  finely  perforated,  nickel  plated,  about 
4"  long  and  in  diameter.  The  ribbon  is  wound 
in  the  form  of  a spiral  with  the  edges  double 


lapped.  Nickeled  steel  rings,  or  ferrules,  at 
intervals,  prevent  the  tube  from  expanding.  In  the 
Type  A Plate  there  are  two  horizontal  rows  of  fif- 
teen (15)  tubes  placed  vertically. 


124 


The  coustructiuii  of  the  negative  plate  (hig.  42) 
IS  very  similar  to  that  of  the  positive,  but  instead 
of  the  nickel  active  material  held  in  tubes,  iron 
oxide  mixed  with  mercury  oxide  in  this  case  is 
tightly  tamped  into  flat  pockets  (Fig.  45)  of  finely 
perforated  nickel  plated  steel  ribbon,  rectangular 
in  shape  and  >2"  wide  by  3"  long  with  a thickness 
of  not  more  than  These  pockets  are  placed 


Fig.  48 — ^Five  A-4  CelLs  in  Tray. 


in  position  on  the  grid  and  under  heavy  pressure, 
forced  into  close  contact  v/ith  it,  at  the  same  time 
making  the  surface  of  the  pockets  corrugated,  thus 
supplying  a firmer  contact  between  the  metal  and 
the  active  material.  The  type  A plate  has  twenty- 
four  (24)  pockets  arranged  in  three  horizontal 
rov/s. 

The  plate  frames  have  a hole  locatttd  in  one  up- 
per corner  through  which  a vSteel  stud  is  passed. 


125 


Two  groups  (Fig.  44)  respectively  of  positive  and 
negative  plates  are  formed  by  arranging  the  re- 
quired number  of  plates  with  spacing  washers  and 
a terminal  post  at  the  centre  of  the  stud.  The  end 
of  the  studs  are  threaded  and  nuts  hold  the  plates 
and  spacing  washers  rigid.  These  two  groups 
f positive  and  negative)  of  the  cell  are  placed  to- 


Fig.  49 — Cell  Connector.  Fig.  50 — Flexible  Connector. 


gether  so  that  the  positive  and  negatives  alternate, 
there  being  one  more  negative  than  positive  plate. 
Between  the  plates  hard  rubber  rods  are  inserted 
and  serve  the  purpose  of  insulating  and  properly 
spacing.  Pieces  of  hard  rubber  in  ladder  form 
(Fig.  44)  are  fitted  snugly,  by  grooving,  to  the 
edges  of  the  plates  so  that  a well  insulated  but  firm 
and  rigid  unit  is  obtained. 

The  receptacle  used  to  hold  the  elements  is  called, 
in  this  case,  a can  (Fig.  46)  as  it  is  made  of  sheet 
steel,  nickel  plated  with  corrugated  sides  to  fur- 
nish strength.  The  seams  on  side,  top  and  bottom 
are  welded  by  the  autogenous  method  with  the  oxy- 
acetylene  flame.  The  can  receives  the  insulated 
unit  described  above,  projections  at  the  lower  ends 
of  the  side  insulators  (Fig.  44)  supporting  the 
126 


plates  at  the  bottom  while  two  thin  sheets  of  hard 
rubber  are  inserted  between  the  outside  negative 
plates  and  the  can.  The  cover  (Fig.  47)  for  this  can 
is  provided  with  two  fittings  through  which  the  pole 
pieces  pass,  being  suitably  insulated  by  rubber 
washers  which  also  prevent  passage  of  gas  or 
liquid.  A combination  filler  and  gas  vent  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  cover  and  allows  the  addition 
of  solution  or  distilled  water  to  the  cell.  The 
hinged  cover  of  this  mounting  is  designed  so  that 


Fig.  51 — Socket  Wrench. 


Fig.  52 — Disconnecting  Jack. 


the  gases  liberated  during  operation  may  be  dis- 
charged without  allowing  entrance  of  air  or  im- 
purities as  these  would  cause  contaminated  electro- 
lyte reducing  the  efficiency  of  the  cell. 

The  welding  of  this  cover  into  place  completes 
the  cell  except  for  the  electrolyte,  which  is  a 21% 
solution  of  potassium  hydrate  with  a snxall  quan- 
tity of  lithium  hydrate. 


127 


The  cell  is  filled  with  electr.olyte  until  a level  of 
about  Yz'  above  the  tops  of  the  plates  is  reached. 
The  cell  is  then  ready  for  the  forming  charges  and 
service  conditions.  The  characteristics  of  the  de- 
sign and  manufacture  are  such  that  repairs  or  re- 
placements, except  of  a minor  character  such  as 
external  parts  and  electrolyte,  must  be  made  at  the 
factory  unless  special  apparatus  is  at  hand  for  such 
work.  This  would  indicate  that  repairs  are  seldom 
required. 

Cells,  of  size  and  number  dictated  by  service 
requirements,  are  assembled  in  hard  wood  trays. 
(Fig.  48).  The  cells  are  provided  with  steel  bosses 
projecting  from  the  sides  which  rest  in  recessed 
hard  rubber  buttons  embedded  in  the  tray  slats 


Fig.  53 — Method  of  Holding  Cells. 


(Fig.  53.  The  trays  permit  of  easy  handling, 
ready  inspection  for  damage,  or  quick  exchange  of 
cell  as  well  as  good  ventilation  and  because  of  the 
rubber  button  suspension  provide  perfect  insula- 
tion between  cells. 

The  terminal  posts  or  positive  and  negative  poles 
referred  to  above  are  tapered  and  threaded  at  the 


top.  The  connectors  (Fig.  49)  are  formed  by 
swedging  a nickel  plated  copper  rod  into  two  lugs 
bored  so  as  to  fit  firmly  on  the  tapered  poles.  The 
placing  of  the  connector  thus  accomplishes  the  con- 
nection of  adjacent  cells  and  admits  of  connection 
between  trays,  parts  of  the  battery,  controller,  etc. 
Where  connections  must  be  flexible  a stranded  con- 


Fig.  54 — Quick  Method  of  Determining  Level  of  Electrolyte. 


RUBBER 

TUBING 


14"GLASS 

TUBE 


A3.  A4.  A5.  A6.= 
A 8.  A 10.  AI2.= 
A3H.A4H.A5H.A6H.= 
ASH.  AlOH.  AI2H.= 


ductor  (Fig.  50)  instead  of  a copper  rod  is  sold- 
ered into  the  lug.  Nuts  are  screwed  tightly  into 
position  (Fig.  51)  making  connection  firm  and 


129 


permanent  at  the  same  time  admitting  of  quick 
and  easy  disconnecting.  A disconnecting  jack 
shown  (Fig.  52)  is  used  to  remove  the  connector 
from  the  poles. 

EDISON  BATTERY 

Care  and  Operation.  In  addition  to  the  general 
instructions  given  above  which  apply  to  all  storage 
batteries,  the  following  are  applicable  to  the  Edi- 
son battery  alone. 

Upon  arrival  of  the  cells  inspection  should  be 
made  of  the  height  of  the  solution  level  (Fig:  54) 
y'-f  above  the  tops  of  the  plates  for  the  A-3,  A-4, 
A~5  and  A-6  types  and  above  for  the  A-8,  A- 10 
and  A- 1 2 types,  taking  care  to  close  the  filler  caps 
after  the  inspection.  If  the  level  is  lower  than  these 
values  spilling  or  damage  in  transit  is  indicated  and 
the  manufacturer  should  be  notified. 

In  making  connections  connect  the  positive  pole 
of  the  end  cell  of  one  tray  to  the  negative  pole  of 
that  in  the  next,  etc.  Where  connections  other 
than  these  are  necessary  the  wiring  diagram  of 
the  vehicle  in  question  should  be  followed,  although 
the  terminals  of  the  vehicle  leads  are  generally 
lettered  ore  marked  to  correspond  with  the  battery 
terminals  for  simplicity  in  assembling. 

Charging.  Before  charging,  the  battery  com- 
partments should  always  be  opened  in  order  to  al- 
low ventilation.  Inspection  should  be  made  of  the 
height  of  the  electrolyte  and  if  not  found  to  be 
correct^  thw  it  should  be  brought  to  the  proper 


130 


level  by  the  addition  of  distilled  water  only  as 
described  below  and  added  before  the  charge  is 
begun.  (Page  135.) 

The  charging  voltage  required  for  various  num- 
bers of  cells  usually  encountered  in  vehicle  prac- 
tice is  in  (Table  8)  or  may  be  easily  calculated  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  cells  to  be  charged  by 
1.85  volts. 

Table  No.  8. 

VOLTS  REQUIRED  TO  CHARGE 


Volts 

Volts 

No.  of 

Across 

No,  of 

Across 

Cells 

Cells 

Cells 

Cells 

10 

18.5 

60 

III  .0 

20 

37-0 

70 

130.0 

30 

55-5 

80 

148.0 

40 

74.0 

90 

167.0 

50 

92.5 

100 

185.0 

These  voltages  are  the  lowest  sufficient  to  charge 
the  numbers  of  cells  given  in  series,  at  the  normal 
rate  toward  the  end  of  charge.  While  a few  per 
cent,  reduction  in  voltage  will  not  materially  affect 
the  charge,  allowance  should  be  provided  if  it  is  re- 
quired to  charge  at  higher  rates  or  charge  several 
combinations  of  cells. 

The  initial  charge  should  last  for  12  hours  at  the 
normal  rate  for  service.  The  ^'Normal  Rate’’  is  the 
catalogue  rate  of  current  for  charge  or  discharge 
prescribed  by  the  manufactuer. 


131 


Type  of  Cell 

TABLE  9. 

ELECTRICAL  DATA 

A-8 

A'- 10  A- 12 

Capacity,  Ampere  Hours...  112.5  150 

187.5  225 

300 

375  450 

Normal  Charge  Rate, 
peres  

Am- 

22.5  30 

37.5  45 

60 

75 

90 

Normal  Discharge, 
Amperes  

Rate, 

37.5  45 

60 

75 

90 

The  normal  charge  for  a battery  practically  dis- 
charged is  seven  hours  at  the  normal  rate  (Table 
9)  line  3.  The  method  of  maintaining  this  rate  as 
well  as  others  described  below  is  explained  under 
“Charging  Apparatus”  Chapter  VI.  Should  condi- 
tions prevent  maintaining  the  normal  rate,  then  the 
rate  at  the  beginning  may  be  set  at  a value  approx- 
imately 50%  above  the  normal  at  the  start.  This 
figure  will  vary  somewhat  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  resistance  in  the  charging  circuit.  As 
the  battery  voltage  rises,  during  the  progress  of  the 
charge,  this  rate  decreases  and  the  average  charging 
current  will  be  approximately  the  normal  rate 
prescribed. 

When  the  battery  is  not  fully  discharged  suf- 
ficient charging  need  only  be  furnished  to  com- 
pensate for  the  capacity  removed.  If  the  cells 
are  half  discharged  then  half  of  seven  hours  or 
three  and  one-half  hours'  charge  at  the  normal 
rate  or  its  equivalent  is  necessary.  In  other 
words  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  ampere-hour 
input  about  20-25%  greater  than  the  ampere-hour 
output  or  if  an  Ampere-Hour  Meter  (Page  192) 
is  used,  set  to  operate  20%  slow  on  charge. 

The  battery  may  be  charged  at  any  time,  be 
the  state  of  charge  what  it  may,  or  may  be  dis- 
charged without  other  consideration  than  that 


13t 


of  the  capacity  needed.  Should  a vehicle  be  ca- 
pable of  a mileage  capacity  of  6o  miles,  but  15 
of  w^hich  are  needed  per  day,  then  a daily  charge 
can  be  added  sufficient  to-  compensate  for  the 
fraction  removed  or  no  charging  done  until  the 
capacity  is  exhausted. 

Where  the  daily  mileage  is  apt  to  vary  consid- 
erably the  first  method  is  probably  preferable. 

Overcharge.  The  first  charge  of  the  battery 
should  be  an  overcharge,  that  is  charging  for 
twelve  hours  at  the  normal  rate.  This  operation 
should  be  repeated  after  thirty  and  sixty  days 
of  service  and  after  each  renewal  of  solution. 
It  should  be  understood  that  overcharging  at 
the  normal  rate  has  no  harmaful  effect  at  other 
times  but  is  not  necessary  and  thf^refore  a waste 
of  current. 

Boosting.  Hastening  a charge,  familiarly 
known  as  '‘Boosting’’  may  in  general  be  accom- 
plished by  using  a high  charging  rate,  the  value 
of  the  current  being  governed  by  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cells,  a temperature  of  115°  being  a 
practical  limit.  Experiment  under  many  condi- 
tions has  shown  that  the  following  are  permis- 
sible : 

5 minutes  at  five  times  normal  rate 

or  15  “ four  “ ‘‘ 

30  “ “ three  “ 

60  “ “ two  “ 

In  this  way  noon  hour  or  other  emergency  charg- 
ing can  be  done  v/ithout  injury  to  the;  cell  and 
in  fact  is  recommended  by  the  manufacturer  as  a 


133 


very  efficient  method  of  operation  when  the  neces- 
sary charging  apparatus  is  available.  This  admits 
of  a flexibility  of  operation,  placing  the  electric 
vehicle  in  a class  by  itself.  While  the  battery  equip- 
ment required  for  usual  demands  may  not  be  of 
capacity  sufficient  for  great  mileage,  yet  with  proper 
boosting,  continuous  operation  m.ay  be  obtained.  A 
few  minutes'  thought  will  show  that  this  is  possible 
as  there  are  very  few  vehicles  which  are  not  idle 
for  the  limited  length  of  time  necessary  for  the 
boost.  It  need  not  be  accomplished  without  inter- 
ruption, so  any  time  can  be  called  the  right  time. 
Simply  a matter  of  giving  the  horse  a drink.  To  se- 
cure the  best  results  it  is  not  advisable  to  charge 
at  less  than  the  normal  rate  as  a lower  discharge 
voltage  will  result  reducing  the  speed  of  the  vehicle 
for  the  following  discharge.  In  cold  weather  the 
charging  rate  should  be  above  rather  than  below 
the  normal  fate  in  order  to  heat  the  cells  before 
use.  Where  vehicles  are  stored  and  charged  in  a 
cold  garage  it  is  often  found  convenient  to  arrange 
the  charging  so  that  the  end  of  the  charge  will  ter- 
minate with  the  current  several  times  the  normal 
rate.  Where  a battery  is  to  be  used  in  a locality 
of  exceptionally  low  temperature  and  may  be  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  hours  at  a time,  as  might  obtain 
with  a pleasure  vehicle,  then  the  battery  compart- 
ment should  be  suitably  protected  from  air  circula- 
tion so  that  the  heat  may  be  retained  and  the  out- 
put of  the  battery  thus  increased.  If  this  means  be 
made  use  of,  however,  the  compartment  should  be 
returned  to  its  original  condition  when  moderate 


134 


temperature  conditions  return,  as  the  temperature 
of  the  cells  would  rise  above  that  recommended  for 
the  most  efficient  results  through  a long  life. 


Fig.  55 — Filling  Apparatus  for  Distilled  Water. 


Discharge.  Very  little  need  be  said  in  regard  to 
the  discharge  except  that  for  continuous  operation, 
the  rate  of  discharge  should  not  exceed  25%  above 
the  normal  discharge  rate,  which  is  identical  with 
the  normal  charge  rate  for  the  same  size  cell.  This, 
of  course,  does  not  affect  sudden  or  short  overload 
conditions  at  which  there  is  no  limit  to  the  discharge 
current. 

Solution.  The  cells  as  received  from  the  manu- 
facturer are  filled  with  electrolyte  of  proper 


135 


strength  and  (providing  that  no  accident  has  oc- 
curred) to  the  correct  level  as  explained  above.  As 
the  battery  is  charged  this  level  is  reduced  owing  to 
evaporation  of  solution  by  gassing  produced  by  the 
passage  of  current.  As  this  evaporation  is 
nearly  entirely  water,  distilled  water  only  should 
be  used  for  replenishing;  never  potash  and  only 
distilled  water.  Water  should  not  be  spilled  onto 
cells  or  trays  and  the  filler  caps  should  be 
closed  except  when  filling  or  testing  for  height 
of  solution. 

The  distilled  water  should  be  kept  in  carboys 
which  have  held  no  acid  and  which  are  distinctly 
labeled,  so  that  by  no  possibility  may  acid  be  in- 
troduced. 

An  electric  filling  outfit  furnished  by  the  manu- 
facturer is  arranged  to  save  time  and  trouble  in 
bringing  the  solution  to  the  proper  level  with  dis- 
tilled water.  It  consists  of  a tank  for  the  distilled 
water  (Fig.  55)  and  a length  of  rubber  hose  at- 
tached to  the  filler  which  is  designed  to  allow  water 
to  flow  into  the  cell  until  the  solution  level  has  been 
brought  to  the  proper  height,  when  an  electric  bell 
circuit  is  closed  by  the  solution  and  the  bell  rings. 
The  spring  valve  of  the  filler  is  then  released  and 
the  flow  discontinued  until  the  filler  is  placed  in  the 
next  cell.  This  filler  or  tank  should  be  used  for 
no  other  purpose  than  the  above. 

With  use,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  solution  will 
decrease  in  ordinary  service,  so  that  after  a period 
of  approximately  eight  to  twelve  months  of  continu- 


136 


ous  daily  service  or  its  equivalent,  the  solution 
should  be  tested  with  a hydrometer  and  if  the  read- 
ings of  a majority  of  the  cells  are  below  1.160,  after 
full  charge,  the  solution  should  be  renewed.  The 
weight  necessary  per  cell  is  given  in  (Table  10) 
below. 


TABLE  10. 

WEIGHT  OF  ELECTROLYTE  REQUIRED  IN  RENEWAL 

Type  of  Cell A-3  A-4  A-5  A-6  A-8  A-10  A-12 

Weight  of  solution  to  refill 

one  cell  in  pounds 2.4  3 3.6  4.3  5.8  8.2  9.7 

Having  the  necessary  amount  of  solution  at  hand, 
the  battery  should  be  thoroughly  discharged,  re- 
moved from  the  battery  compartment  and  the  solu- 
tion removed  by  inverting  the  trays.  Sloppage  over 
the  cans  and  trays  should  be  avoided.  By  syphon- 
ing or  with  a glass  funnel  the  renewal  solution 
should  be  added  immediately. 

For  export  shipments,  the  potassium  and  lithium 
hydrate  are  supplied  in  dry  crystalline  form,  ready 
to  be  mixed  with  di.stilled  water,  according  to  the 
instructions,  at  the  destination. 

At  this  point  in  the  care  it  is  well  to  emphasize 
that  cleanliness  is  most  necessary,  for  neglect  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  majority  of  battery  ailments. 
When  the  trays  are  out  of  the  vehicle  it  is  well  to 
clean  them  thoroughly  and  also  to  see  that  no  for- 
eign material  adheres  to  the  cells.  Usually  a jet 
of  dry  steam  or  compressed  air  will  accomplish 
this,  the  former  being  preferable.  The  compart- 
ment should  be  cleaned  out  well,  made  tight  so  as 
to  keep  waste  and  dirt  out.  Where  cold  weather 
is  experienced  it  is  important  that  this  compart- 


137 


ment  be  closed  tightly,  so  that  the  heat  generated 
during  charge  and  discharge  may  be  retained.  If 
the  temperature  of  the  battery  fall  below  50°  F.  on 
discharge,  the  output  will  be  materially  lessened. 
The  temperature  of  50°  F.  here  refers  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  electrolyte  of  the  cell.  If  the  com- 
partment is  properly  enclosed  the  temperature  out- 
side the  compartment  may  be  very  low,  below  zero 
in  fact,  without  reducing  the  working  cell  tempera- 
ture to  the  limit  indicated.  This  capacity  is  ac- 
cessible, however,  upon  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  cell  to  normal. 

The  highest  immediate  discharge  capacities  are 
obtained  when  the  charging  is  carried  on  at  a mod- 
erately low  temperature,  between  75°  and  85°  F. 
(not  below  50°  F.)  and  the  discharge  at  a high 
temperature,  not  exceeding  115°  F.  As  heat  dur- 
ing the  charge  is  more  detrimental  to  the  life  of  the 
plates  than  heat  during  discharge,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  charging  instructions  (page  130) 
given  above  be  followed  as  they  are  the  result  of  a 
study  of  the  many  conditions  involved  in  actual 
service. 

With  the  above  explanation,  however,  such  va- 
riations may  be  made  as  the  emergency  demands 
or  the  requirements  of  the  service  dictate. 

After  replacing  the  trays  in  the  compartment, 
care  should  be  exercised  in  assembling  correctly  so 
that  the  end  cells  are  properly  connected  as  ex- 
plained above.  The  contact  surfaces  of  the  con- 
nectors and  tapered  poles  should  be  cleaned  with 
fine  emery  cloth  so  that  good  electrical  contact  is 


138 


obtained  as  poor  contact  would  cause  heating  of  the 
connection.  After  the  cells  have  been  on  charge 
for  a few  hours,  if  the  hand  is  run  over  these  con- 
nectors, any  poor  connections  will  be  found  to  be 
warm  or  even  hot.  If  such  is  the  case,  the  con- 
nectors should  be  removed,  cleaned  and  again  firmly 
secured. 

POINTS  TO  BE  REMEMBERED  IN  THE 
CARE  OF  THE  EDISON  BATTERY. 

1.  Never  put  acid  into  an  Edison  battery  or  use 
utensils  that  have  been  used  for  acid;  you  may 
ruin  the  battery. 

2.  Never  bring  a naked  flame  near  the  battery. 

3.  Never  lay  tools  or  pieces  of  metal  on  the 
battery. 

4.  Keep  the  filler  caps  closed  at  all  times  except 
when  necessary  for  filling. 

5.  Keep  the  cells  filled  to  the  proper  level  by  . 
adding  distilled  water  only. 

6.  Keep  the  cells  externally  as  clean  and  dry  as 
practicable. 


139 


CHAPTER  VI. 


CHARGING  APPARATUS  AND  CHARGING 
STATIONS. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  subject  of  Storage  Bat- 
teries, the  words  ''charging*’  and  "discharging’’ 
are  used  very  frequently  and  refer  to  the 
chemical  effects  produced  in  the  cells  of  the  stor- 
age battery  by  the  passage  of  electric  current 
through  them.  It  is  necessary  that  this  charging 
current  must  pass  through  the  cells  in  one  and  only 
one  direction  during  the  charging  operation.  For 
this  reason  the  negative  terminal  of  the  series  of 
cells  is  connected  to  the  negative  terminal  of  the. 
charging  source  and  the  positive  terminal  to  that 
of  the  positive  source. 

In  the  case  of  a direct  current  charging  supply 
these  terminals  when  connected  through  the  proper 
rheostat  will  supply  the  required  charging  current. 
With  alternating  current,  however,  the  terminals 
are  po.sitive  and  negative  one  instant,  negative  and 
positive  the  next  and  this  change  continues  so  rap- 
idly that  absolutely  no  charging  effect  is  produced 
on  the  battery.  If  it  were  not  for  the  apparatus 
which  transforms  this  alternating  current  into  the 
current  of  one  direction,  direct  current,  then  the 
latter  only  would  be  available  for  battery  charging. 
Transforming  apparatus  has  been  developed  which 
meets  every  need  in  this  respect  with  the  features 
of  simplicity  of  operation,  safety  to  battery  and 
user,  and  efficient  results.  Thus  we  have  two  divi- 


140 


sions  in  the  field  of  charging  apparatus;  ihat  used 
for  direct  current  charging  and  that  for  transform- 
ing or  ''rectifying’’  alternating  current.  The  meth- 
ods used  with  the  accessories  necessary  will  now 
be  taken  up  under  those  headings.  The  actual 
operations  in  the  charging  of  vehicle  storage  bat- 
teries are  few  in  number  and  simple  of  manipula- 
tion, however  complex  the  theory  concerning  the 


Fig.  56 — Charging  Rheostat  for  Mounting  on  Wall. 

actions  may  be.  The  pleasure  derived  from  the 
passenger  car  or  the  efficient  results  from  the  use 
of  the  commercial  car  are  gained  not  by  a theo- 
retical study  of  the  inherent  parts,  but  by  a work- 
ing familiarity  with  the  few  and  simple  rules  of 
conduct.  It  is  true  of  the  electric  vehicle  as  it  is 
true  of  electrical  contrivances  in  general  that  they 
are  simple,  safe  and  reliable. 


141 


DIRECT  CURRENT  APPARATUS. 

Where  direct  current  is  available  it  is  in  nearly 
all  cases  of  no  volts,  220  volts  or  500  to  600  volts. 
These  voltages  will  vary  somewhat,  but  not  con- 
siderably. 

You  remember  that  for  charging,  the  cells  are 
arranged  in  series  and  that  the  highest  charging 
voltage  required  at  the  end  of  the  charge  is,  with 
few  exceptions,  less  than  no  volts.  At  the  be- 


Fig.  57 — Row  of  Charging  Rheostat  Units. 


ginning  of  the  charge,  the  required  voltage  is  about 
15%  less  than  the  final  value  so  that  in  every  case, 
^ means  must  be  provided  for  gradually  increasing 
the  voltage  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  value 
required,  in  order  that  the  proper  charging  current 
may  be  maintained.  Where  a no  volt  supply  serv- 
ice is  available,  the  introduction  of  a variable  re- 
sistance rheostat  in  series  with  the  battery  is  suffi- 
cient to  accomplish  the  result. 


142 


The  charging  rheostat  or  variable  resistance  is 
of  sufficient  size  to  carry  the  required  charging 
current  continuously  without  undue  heating  and  is 
constructed  so  that  a movement  of  the  handle  or 
lever  lowers  or  raises  the  current,  which  is  meas- 
ured by  the  ammeter  in  convenient  location  for 
reading.  These  rheostats  as  illustrated  are  pro- 
duced in  many  sizes  and  in  several  types,  repre- 
senting careful  study  on  the  part  of  the  manu- 


58 — Compression  Carbon  Disc  Rheostat. 


facturer,  of  the  needs  of  the  several  classes  of  serv- 
ice, as  private  small  garage,  private  large  garage  or 
small  or  large  public  garage.  Where  the  garage 
is  large,  many  rheostats  are  needed  and  while  they 
may  be  located  at  one  large  switchboard  or  at  the 
individual  charging  plugs,  the  operation  of  each  one 
is  simply  that  described  above. 

Should  the  voltage  of  the  supply  source  be  220 
volts  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  a rheostat  with 
much  greater  resistance  than  for  a no  volt  circuit. 
The  loss  in  the  rheostat  is  more  than  twice,  as  much 
in  this  case,  but  is  unavoidable  excepting  where  a 


143 


motor  generator  set  may  Ire  used  as  described  on 
page  173. 


Fig.  59 — Twelve-Circuit  Rheostat  Set  for  a Public  Garage. 


There  are  localities  where  neither  no  volts,  220 
volts  D.  C.  (direct  current)  or  alternating  current 
is  available,  but  where  500-600  volts  D.  C.  may  be 
had  from  an  electric  trolley  line.  As  the  loss  of 
energy,  dissipated  in  heat  in  the  resistance,  is  so 
large  in  proportion  to  that  effecting  chemical  change 


144 


in  the  battery,  this  application  is  to  be  recom- 
mended  only  in  extreme  cases,  such  as  temporary, 


Fig.  60 — Flexible  Unit  Type  Charging  Panel. 

emergency  or  other  charging  applications  to  which 
there  is  no  other  alternative.  It  should  be  clearly 


145 


understood  that  the  above  statement  refers  to  the 
charging  of  a vehicle  battery  from  the  500  volt  cir- 
cuit through  resistance.  If  the  use  is  to  be  per- 


FRONT.  REAR. 

Fig.  61 — Moderate  Capacity  Public  Garage  Panels. 

manent  then  it  would  be  advisable  to  use  a motor 
generator  set  (page  173).  This  is  especially  true 
where  a number  of  vehicles  are  to  be  regularly 


146 


charged  as  the  efficiency  of  the  total  installation 
will  rise  with  the  number  of  cars  charged  at  the 
same  time. 

The  rheostat  is  usually  mounted  upon  an  insulat- 
ing slab  of  slate  or  marble  and  connected  through 


Fig.  62 — Charging  Board  of  Large  Garage. 


a fused  switch  and  circuit  breaker,  protective  de- 
vices and  instruments  (voltmeter,  ammeter  and 
watt-hour  meter),  to  the  battery.  (Fig.  63.)  The 
circuit  breaker  is  an  electrical  device  which  auto- 
matically discontinues  the  passage  of  current  when 


147 


it  reaches  too  high  a value.  An  adjusting  screw 
fixes  the  value  at  which  the  flow  will  be  interrupted. 
Ihe  setting  is  arranged  to  prevent  excessively  large 
current  passing  through  the  battery  and  ruining 
it  by  overcharge,  overheating  or  both.  The  switch 
which  cuts  off  all  current  to  the  battery  is  fused 
so  that  additional  safety  from  too  high  current  or 
short  circuit  may  be  provided.  If  the  circuit 
breaker  opens  or  “trips,’'  it  is  necessary  only  to 
reduce  the  current  and  close  it,  but  when  a fuse 
“blows”  it  is  necessary  to  insert  a new  one  after 
locating  the  trouble.  For  this  reason  the  breaker 
should  be  set  to  trip  below  the  capacity  of  the  fuse 
so  that  this  inconvenience  may  be  avoided  without 
impairing  the  protection.  The  current  passes  di- 
rectly through  the  ammeter  which  gives  the  rate 
at  which  the  charging  is  done. 

The  voltmeter  records  the  voltage  across  the 
battery  terminals;  the  readings  of  voltage  are 
those  referred  to  in  the  tables  (pages  49  & 131). 
The  watt-hour  meter  is  usally  on  the  service  side 
of  the  main  switch  in  small  installations  and  is 
not  an  indicating  meter  as  are  the  above,  but  is  a 
recording  instrument  giving  the  additive  result. 
The  difference  in  reading  between  the  end  and 
beginning  of  charge  is  the  amount  of  energy  in 
kilowatt-hours  used.  This  number  multiplied  by 
the  price  per  kilowatt-hour  is  the  cost  of  the  ener- 
gy and  can  be  regularly  and  easily  checked.  In 
many  garages,  one  of  these  meters  is  provided  for 
each  vehicle  charged,  so  that  its  energy  consump- 
tion may  be  measured  individually.  The  protec- 


ts 


tive  devices  mentioned  in  addition  to  those  de 
scribed  are  an  underload  release  (low  current) 
cut-out  (Fig.  63),  maximum  voltage  cut-out  (2) 
and  solenoid  switch  (3).  The  low  current  release, 
automatically  opens  the  circuit  if  the  current  falls 
to  a predetermined  minimum.  This  prevents  the 
battery  from  discharging  into  the  line  should  the 
voltage  of  the  supply  circuit  fall  below  that  of  the 
battery.  The  maximum  voltage  cut-out  automat- 
ically opens  the  circuit  when  the  voltage  of  the 
battery  reaches  the  voltage  at  which  the  cut-out 
is  set  to  operate.  In  this  way  the  charge  may  be 
automatically  discontinued  when  completed,  by 
setting  the  cut-out  to  trip  when  the  battery  in 
question  has  come  up  to  the  required  voltage. 
This  action  would  have  to  be  dispensed  with  dur- 
ing the  period  of  bi-weekly  overcharge  so  that  all 
cells  can  be  brought  up  to  healthy  condition.  The 
solenoid  switch  ''makes’'  or  "breaks”  the  circuit 
by  closing  or  opening.  It  is  automatic  in  action, 
remaining  closed  and  keeping  the  charging  cir- 
cuit closed  when  the  main  switch  is  closed,  but 
opening  and  remaining  open  when  that  switch  is 
opened  until  it  is  again  closed.  This  device  is 
usually  accompanied  by  the  overload  breaker 
(Fig.  63),  so  that  protection  is  afforded  to 
the  battery  under  all  conditions  with  a minimum 
of  attention.  The  operation  of  these  devices  in 
connection  with  a rheostat  will  now  be  given. 

Having  the  battery  arranged  for  charge  (page 
37),  all  switches  open  and  the  resistance  all  "in” 
(usually  with  the  handle  to  the  left  or  at  the  bot- 
tom position),  the  charging  plug  is  inserted  in 

14P 


the  receptacle  on  the  vehicle.  The  knife  switch 
is  then  closed  and  the  lever  moved  to  the  right  to 
the  second  or  third  contact  segment  (depending 
on  the  particular  make  of  rheostat),  while  bringing 


1 2 S 4 

Fig.  63 — Charging  Panel  with  Protective  Devices. 

the  plunger  on  the  low  current  cut-out  up  into  posi- 
tion, allowing  the  flow  of  current  to  energize  the 
main  line  solenoid  . switch  permitting  the  flow  of 
current  to  the  battery  through  the  ammeter  and 
resistance.  The  lever  is  then  moved  further  to  the 
right  until  the  current  is  at  the  proper  rate  as  in- 
dicated by  the  ammeter. 


160 


Should  there  be  an  interruption  in  the  supply 
circuit,  or  the  voltage  of  the  line  drop  below  that 
of  the  battery  tending  to  cause  it  to  discharge  into 
the  line,  then  the  low  current  cut-out  will  release 
its  plunger  causing  the  current  to  cease  in  the  sole- 
noid switch,  demagnetizing  it  and  opening  the 
circuit.  Should  the  charging  current  reach  too  high 


Fig.  64— Time  Switch. 


a value  then  the  overload  circuit  breaker  will  be- 
come sufficiently  energized  to  “trip’’  the  solenoid 
switch,  opening  the  circuit.  Finally,  if  the  charge 
progress  without  interruption,  when  the  voltage 
reaches  that  at  which  the  maximum  voltage  cut-out 
is  adjusted  to  operate,  it  will  “trip”  and  discon- 
tinue the  charge,  eliminating  any  danger  of  over- 
charge but  allowing  a full  charge.  Some  devices 


151 


are  arranged  so  as  to  prevent  the  operator  placing 
the  battery  on  charge  except  by  moving  the  lever 
to  the  extreme  left  and  beginning  with  a small 
current;  others  return  the  lever  to  the  starting 
position  as  soon  as  the  circuit  is  opened. 


Fig.  65 — Panel  for  Automatic  Constant  Current  Charging. 

It  is  possible  to  control  the  current  automatically 
by  reducing  the  resistance  in  series  with  the  bat- 
tery step  by  step  as  the  counter  voltage  of  the  cells 
increases.  Fig.  65  shows  a device  designed 


153 


to  maintain  a constant  current  throughout  the  peri- 
od of  charge.  Ihis  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  pointer  of  the  meter  and  the  relay  and  solenoid 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  panel.  As  the  battery 
voltage  increases  with  the  charge,  the  current  is 
decreased,  the  meter  pointer  travelling  to  the  left. 
Adjustment  made  by  a set  screw  on  the  instru- 
ment, permits  the  relay  of  the  lower  right  hand 
corner  to  be  energized,  when  the  minimum  cur- 
rent desired  is  reached.  The  energizing  of  the  re- 
lay causes  it  to  close  fhe  contacts  of  the  solenoid 
circuit,  allowing  the  latter  to  draw  its  plunger  in, 
advancing  the  regulator  one  step.  Each  step  thus 
cut-out  increases  the  current  rate  about  five  am- 
peres. This  process  continues  until  either  the 
charge  is  complete  or  all  the  resistance  is  cut-out. 
When  the  latter  condition  has  been  reached  the 
relay  at  the  top  of  the  board  causes  the  charging 
circuit  to  be  opened.  This  rheostat  is  designea  to 
maintain  a uniform  charging  rate  and  is  more  ap- 
plicable to  the  charging  of  Edison  batteries  than 
lead  batteries,  which  are  favored  by  a tapering 
(decreasing  current)  charge. 

The  Ampere-hour  Meter  is  described  on  page  192 
and  has  come  into  very  extended  use  for  vehicle 
charging  purposes.  In  nearly  all  cases  it  is  mount- 
ed directly  upon  the  vehicle,  but  the  connections 
are  arranged  so  that  when  the  pointer  makes  the 
contact,  when  the  charging  is  completed,  the  cir- 
cuit breaker  upon  the  charging  panel  is  ''tripped’’ 
and  the  circuit  is  opened.  This  affords  a simple 
means  of  automatic  charging  as  the  battery  may 


be  put  on  charge  at  a starting  rate  such  that  the 
average  charging  current  will  be  the  same  as 
though  attendance  was  given  at  the  board.  This 
method  is  described  on  page  64.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  should  not  be  understood  that  no  attention 
is  required  during  the  charging  as  in  nearly  all 
cases  the  more  attention  the  better  would  be  the 
results  but  a little  time  at  the  right  time  will  ob- 
viate, in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  difficulties  en- 
countered. 

A device  known  as  an  ''automatic  time  switch 
cut-out''  (Fig.  64)  is  frequently  ifsed  for  term- 
inating the  charging  of  a battery  and  is  reliable 
and  safe  in  accomplishing  this  result  if  properly 
installed.  The  device  is  merely  a clock  which  can 
be  set  to  "trip"  open  the  circuit  at  a specific  time 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  alarm  clock  awak- 
ens the  slumberer.  It  is  to  be  recommended  where 
the  requirements  do  not  exceed  these  qualifications. 
The  only  disadvantage  is  that  it  relies  upon  the , 
intelligence  of  the  operator  to  predetermine  the 
amount  of  charge  necessary  before  setting  the  dial. 
However,  with  a given  battery,  several  carefully 
watched  charges,  checking  up  by  voltage  and  spe- 
cific gravity  readings,  will  readily  determine  the 
approximate  length  of  time  needed  to  bring  the 
battery  into  a fully  charged  condition. 

A maximum  voltage  cut-out  (Fig.  63)  has  been 
mentioned  above  and  its  effectiveness  in  operation 
depends  upon  the  assumption  that  the  voltage  of 
the  supply  circuit  remains  constant  or  practically 
so  while  the  battery  voltage  gradually  increases  to 


154 


the  limit  set  on  the  cut-out.  The  end  of  charge 
of  lead  battery  is  determined  not  by  the  voltage 
reaching  a certain  voltage  but  by  its  reaching  and 
maintaining  a certain  maximum  voltage.  The  lat- 
ter will  vary  with  the  temperature,  the  specific 
gravity  and  the  condition  of  the  plates  but  for  a 
given  battery  the  change  will  probably  be  not  very 
great  from  time  to  time  so  that  by  taking  an  occa- 
sional check  reading  with  a hydrometer  and  volt- 
meter the  cut-out  can  be  made  not  only  very  use- 
ful but  also  reliable.  In  such  cases  where  the  exact 
conditions  are  not  definitely  known  as  with  a new 
battery  or  when  charged  only  infrequently  at  a 
garage,  it  is  not  well  to  depend  upon  a voltage  cut- 
out as  either  under-charge  or  serious  and  harmful 
over-charge  with  attendant  heating  might  result 
and  entirely  ruin  the  battery. 

In  the  previous  paragraphs  practically  all  of  the 
devices  commonly  used  in  vehicle  battery  charging 
have  been  explained.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
battery  cannot  be  charged  unless  accompanied  by 
the  use  of  such  devices,  but  that  they  are  very  ef- 
fective and  convenient  means  of  accomplishing  the 
desired  result  with  the  least  effort.  To  summarize 
therefore,  to  charge  from  a direct  current  source 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a suitable  rheostat  placed 
in  series  with  a battery  for  controlling  the  current 
as  well  as  a voltmeter  and  ammeter  to  measure 
these  quantities.  The  voltmeter  and  ammeter  may 
either  be  a combined  instrument  having  the  two 
scales  or  two  separate  instruments.  When  located 
on  the  vehicle  the  combined  instrument  (volt-am- 


156 


meter)  is  used.  Where  the  ampere-hour  meter  is 
located  on  the  vehicle  then  the  volt-ammeter  is  not 
usually  found  necessary  and  is  located  on  the  charg- 
ing panel  instead. 

ALTERNATING  CURRENT  APPARATUS. 

In  order  to  make  an  alternating  current  available 
for  storage  battery  charging  it  must  be  changed  or 
“rectified’'  into  current  which  is  of  one  direction, 
direct  current.  When  it  has  been  thus  treated  its 
effects  upon  the  battery  are  identical  with  those 
of  the  direct  current  supplied  from  the  power  sta- 
tion. When  alternating  current  is  rectified  by 
means  of  a device  which  produces  a current  which 
is  uniform  in  direction  but  pulsating  in  pressure 
the  effects  upon  the  storage  battery  are  just^  the 
same  as  if  the  current  were  of  constant  and  uni- 
form voltage.  The  devices  for  changing  or  con- 
verting alternating  current  into  direct  current  for 
vehicle  charging  are,  known  as  Motor  Generators; 
Rotary  Converters  and  Mercury  Arc  Rectifiers. 

The  motor  generator  (Fig.  76)  effects  the 
transformation  in  a very  . simple  manner."  The  al- 
ternating current  supply  is  used  to  operate  the  alter- 
nating current  motor  to  which  is  coupled  a direct 
current  generator.  The  generator  in  this  case  gives 
a direct  current  of  the  voltage  required  and  acts 
in  all  respects  similar  to  the  generating  apparatus 
used  in  the  power  stations.  It  may  be  varied  in 
speed,  voltage  and  in  current  out-put  so  as  to  con- 
form to  the  requirements  of  the  garage,  be  the 
number  of  vehicle  batteries  small  or  large.  The 


156 


Rotary  Converter  makes  use  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  tlie  motor  generator  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  motor  and  generator  are  combined 


Fig.  66 — Mercury  Arc  Rectifier. 


into  one  machine  having  a common  field  and  ar- 
mature. At  one  end  of  the  armature  the  commu- 
tator for  supplying  the  direct  current  is  placed 
while  at  the  other  end  the  slip-rings  of  the  alter- 


157 


nating  current  motor  are  situated.  The  Rotary 
Converter  or  Motor  Generator  is  used  where  a con- 
siderable number  of  batteries  are  to  be  charged  at 
one  time.  Should  but  a few  vehicles  require  charg- 
ing at  one  time  or  if  arrangements  are  such  that  a 
few  vehicles  may  be  charged  at  intervals,  then 
neither  of  these  machines  would  give  efficient  re- 
sults and  the  combination  would  best  be  effected 
by  use  of  mercury  arc  rectifiers.  ’ 


Fig.  67 — Mercury  Arc  Rectifier  Tube 


The  mercury  arc  rectifier  is  probably  the  most 
widely  used  piece  of  charging  apparatus  as  the 
majority  of  central  stations  supply  only  alternating- 
current.  Its  action  is  reliable  and  continuous  while 
its  operation  is  very  simple.  Any  number  of  bat- 
teries may  be  charged  efficiently  and  the  equip- 
ment can  be  increased  from  time  to  time  as  the  de- 


168 


niands  require.  For  a private  small  garage  a sin- 
gle mercury  arc  rectifier  unit  is  used  while  in  a 
large  garage  a number  of  units  of  large  capacity 
operate  with  similar  results.  An  individual  unit 
(Fig.  66)  consists  of  a slate  panel  upon  which 
are  placed  the  switches,  measuring  instruments  and 
mercury  tube,  and  an  enclosed  coil  on  the  floor  be- 
neath it.  The  leads  from  the  alternating  supply 
circuit  are  brought  to  the  panel  and  connected  to 
the  apparatus  through  a fused  switch.  A cable 
from  the  vehicle  is  connected  through  a circuit 
breaker  to  the  converting  apparatus.  The  apparatus 
which  effects  the  change  from  alternating  current 
to  direct  current  consists  of  a large  glass  bulb  of 
peculiar  shape  as  shown  in  (Fig.  67)  and  a num- 
ber of  coils  of  wire  over  an  iron  core  known  as  re- 
actances shown  diagrammatically  in  (Fig.  68,  E.  & 

F). 

The  rectifier  tube  is  an  exhausted  glass  vessel 
in  which  are  two  graphite  electrodes  (anodes  “AA’A 
and  one  mercury  cathode  (“B”).  Each  anode  is  con- 
nected to  a separate  side  of  the  alternating  current 
supply,  and  also  through  one-half  of  the  main  re- 
actance to  the,  negative  side  of  the  load.  The 
cathode  is  connected  to  the  positive  side.  There  is 
also  a small  starting  electrode  (“C')  connected  to 
one  side  of  the  alternating  current  circuit  through 
resistance,  and  used  for  starting  the  arc.  When  the 
rectifier  tube  is  rocked,  so  as  to  form  and  break 
a mercury  bridge  between  the  cathode  ''B’'  and  the 
starting  anode  ''C/'  a slight  arc  is  formed.  This 
starts  what  is  known  as  the  ''excitation’’  of  the  tube. 


159 


and  the,  cathode  begins  supplying  ionized  mercury 
vapor.  This  condition  of  excitation  can  be  hept  u]) 
only  as  long  as  there  is  current  flowing  toward  the 
cathode. 


Fig.  68 — Automatic  Rectifier,  Front  View. 
For  description  see  page  169. 


If  the  direction  of  supply  voltage  is  reversed,  so 
that  the  formerly  negative  electrode,  or  cathode,  be- 
comes positive  with  the  reversal  of  the  alternating 
current  circuit,  the  current  ceases  to  flow,  since,  in 
order  to  flow  in  the  opposite  direction,  it  would  re- 
quire the  formation  of  a new  cathode,  which  can  be 
160 


accomplished  only  by  special  means.  Therefore,  in 
the  rectifier  tube,  the  current  must  always  flow  to- 
ward the  cathode  which  is  kept  in  a state  of  excita- 
tion by  the  current  itself. 

Such  a tube  would  cease  to  operate  on  alternating 
current  voltage  after  one-half  the  cycle,  if  some 
means  were,  not  provided  to  maintain  the  flow  of 
current  continuously  toward  the  cathode. 


Fig.  69 — Automatic  Rectifier,  Cover  Removed. 

For  description  see  page  169. 

The  maintenance  of  the  current  flow  is  accom- 
plished by  the  main  reactance.  As  the  current  al- 
ternates, first  one  anode  and  then  the  other  becomes 
positive,  the  current  flowing  from  the  positive  anode 
through  the  mercury  vapor,  toward  the  cathode, 
thence  through  the  battery,  or  other  load,  and  back 
through  one-half  of  the,  main  reactance  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  alternating  current  supply  circuit. 

m . ^ 


As  the  current  flows  through  the  main  reactance, 
it  charges  it,  and  while  the  value  of  the  alternating 
wave,  is  decreasing,  reversing  and  increasing,  the 
reactance  discharges,  thus  maintaining  the  arc  until 


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Fig.  70— Elementary  Diagram  of  Connections  Mercury  Arc 
Rectifier. 


the  voltage  reaches  the  value  required  to  maintain 
the  current  against  the  counter  e.m.f.  of  the  load, 
and  reducing  the  fluctuations  in  the,  direct  current. 
In  this  way,  a true  continuous  current  is  produced 
with  very  little  loss  in  transformation. 


162 


The  manipulation  of  the  mercury  arc  rectifier  is 
very  simple  and  requires  a minimum  of  attention 
although  it  must  be  understood  that  in  battery 
charging  attention  of  the  right  kind  is  required. 
Exactly  what  such  attention  should  be  is  explained 
under  the  separate  headings. 

As  mentioned  above  the  rectifier  unit  (Fig.  66) 
consists  of  the  panel  with  the  controlling  devices 
upon  it  and  the  reactance  coil  encased  in  iron 
situated  on  the  floor  beneath  it.  Without  going 
into  details  in  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  re^ 
actance  coil,  suffice  it  to  say  that  the  connections 
are  made  and  the  terminals  brought  out  and  let- 
tered for  ordinary  connections  to  the  proper  points 
on  the  panel.  Excepting  in  cases  where  vehicles 
of  different  numbers  of  cells  are  to  be  charged 
from  the  same  rectifier  at  different  times  no  changes 
are  necessary  in  the  wiring  of  the  reactance  to  the 
panel.  Where  necessary  they  may  be  very  simply 
accomplished  by  following  the  manufacturer's  di- 
rections. The  panel  of  the  rectifier  unit  which  holds 
the  meters  and  controlling  devices,  is  usually  of 
slate  mounted  upon  pipe  support.  All  wiring  connec- 
tions are  on  the  back  of  the  board  so  that  on  the 
front  there  may  be  no  confusion  to  the  inexperi- 
enced. Al  main  '‘A.  C."  line  switch  (Fig.  66)  and 
circuit  breaker,  ammeter  and  voltmeter  in  the 
‘‘D.  C."  circuit,  are  usually  found  on  the  panel. 
The  handle  or  dial  switch  shown  at  the  bottom 
of  the  panel  is  connected  to  a small  reactance  coil 
mounted  on  the  rear  of  the  panel  for  making  finer 
regulation  of  the  voltage  applied  to  the  battery.  A 


163 


tube  mounted  in  a convenient  holder  at  the  back 
of  the  panel  is  connected  by  a rod  extending 
through  the  board  to  a small  knob  on  its  face 
so  that  the  tube  may  be  rocked  to  and  iro  in  start- 
ing its  operation.  This  leaves  but  one  switch 
upon  the  board  unexplained.  It  is  a special  switch 
for  starting  which  is  thrown  in  an  upward  position 
while  rocking  the  tube  and  after  the  arc  has  been 
formed  is  released  and  is  held  in  the  lower  position 
by  a spring. 

The  connections  established  in  the  operation  of 
this  switch  supply  the  resistance  and  load  neces- 
sary for  maintaining  the  arc  in  the  tube  before  the 
battery  is  put  on  charge. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  panel  be  provided 
with  instruments,  but  if  the  vehicle  is  not  provided 
with  volt-ammeter  then  the  board  should  be.  In 
all  cases  it  is  well  to  have  the  panel  thus  provided 
as  the  vehicle  instruments  being  subject  to  shocks 
and  jars  may  not  be  in  good  condition  at  all  times. 

To  begin  a charge  at  the  proper  starting  rate,  for 
the  battery  in  question,  inspection  should  be  made 
of  the  panel  to  see  that  the  switches  are  in  the 
proper  starting  position,  that  is,  open,  and  with  the 
regulating  handles  in  the  lowest  position  then  close 
the  alternating  current  line  switch  and  circuit 
breaker.  While  rocking  the  tube  gently  so  that  the 
mercury  bridge  between  the  cathode  and  start- 
ing anode  may  be  broken,  place  the  starting 
switch  in  the  starting  position.  The  arc  will 
then  be  formed  and  maintained  in  the  tube 
after  which  the  regulating  switches  may  be  ad- 


164 


justed  to  give  the  proper  charging  current.  As 
the  charge  progresses,  the  adjustments  of  current 
are  made  by  simply  altering  the  position  of  the 
regulating  switches  without  discontinuing  the  op- 
eration of  the  rectifier  until  the  end  of  the  charge. 
If  the  tube  “goes  out”  or  does  not  maintain  the 
arc  when  the  starting  switch  is  released  into  the 
operating  position,  the  operation  should  be  tried 
again  with  the  setting  of  the  regulating  switch 
several  points  higher.  As  there  are  two  regulating 
handles,  one  being  steps  of  regulation  of  greater 


Fig.  71 — Testing  Tube  for  Vacuum. 


size  than  the  other,  adjustment  should  be  made  with 
the  smaller  or  fine  regulating  switch  until  it  has 
reached  its  maximum  when  it  should  be  reduced 
to  its  lowest  position  and  steps  of  the  coarse  regu- 
lating switch  added  and  final  adjustment  made  with 
the  fine  regulating  switch.  By  this  means  any 
voltage  supplied  by  the  rectifier  from  its  minimum 
to  maximum  capacity  may  be  obtained. 


165 


Should  on  the  other  hand  the  tube  fail  to  main- 
tain the  arc  when  thrown  over  into  the  operating 
position  and  an  increase  of  voltage  described  does 
not  efifect  the  desired  results,  then  the  trouble  is 
elsewhere.  Inspection  should  be  made  of  the  con- 
nections on  the  back  of  the  board  to  see  if  all  are 
secure  and  if  this  does  not  produce  the  desired 
results  then  the  tube  should  be  disconnected,  care- 
fully removed  from  its  holder  and  held  in  the  posi- 


Fig.  72 — Testing  Tube  for  Vacuum, 


tion  shown  in  (Fig.  71).  Giving  care  not  to  al- 
low the  mercury  to  run  into  the  side  arm,  the  lower 
end  should  be  raised  (Fig.  72)  until  the  mercury 
rises  in  the  large  end.  This  operation  should  be,  done 
slowly  so  that  the  mercury  will  run  in  a small 
stream  separating  into  drops.  If  the  tube  is  in  good 
condition  the  drops  will  come  together  with  a sharp 
metallic  click,  but  if  the  tube  should  be  defective. 


166 


by  reason  of  a poor  vacuum,  then  the  stream  will 
be  relatively  slow  to  run  and  a dull  thud  will  be 
heard  instead  of  the  characteristic  metallic  click. 
Should  this  test  show  that  the  vacuum  is  impaired, 


Fig.  73 — Runabout  Type  Rectifier. 

it  will  be  necessary  to  communicate  with  the  manu- 
facturer with  regard  to  a new  tube,  but  if  the  tube 
is  found  to  be  in  good  condition  then  the  services 
of  a competent  electrician  will  be  required. 

For  the  operation  of  a single  vehicle,  a rectifier 
set  (Fig.  73),  is  designed  to  charge  the  number  of 


167 


cells  in  the  particular  battery  in  the  vehicle  and  is 
not  adapted  for  charging  much  greater  or  less  num- 
ber. Should  it  be  desired  to  charge  batteries  hav- 
ing different  numbers  of  cells,  then  a rectifier  unit 
which  can  be  operated  over  a wide  voltage  range 


Fig.  74 — Public  Garage  Type  Rectifier. 

will  be  most  suitable.  In  fact,  if  the  owner  is  likely 
to  purchase  a new  car  at  any  time  it  would  be  wise 
to  install  the  latter  or  standard  set  so  that  there 


need  be  no  difficulty  at  the  time  of  change  of  cars. 

In  figure  68  is  shown  another  make  of  mer- 
cury rectifier  which  is  entirely  enclosed  in  a single 
unit.  The  transformer  reactance,  bulb,  etc.,  are 
mounted  on  a cast  iron  frame  (Fig.  71)  and  com- 
pletely enclosed  by  metal  covers.  No  live  parts 
whatever  are  exposed,  which  eliminates  all  danger 
of  shocks  to  the  operator,  or  to  children.  Large 
and  small  step  dial  switches  make  it  easy  to  charge 
any  number  of  cells  within  a wide  range,  without 
change  of  commutators.  A magnet  energized  from 
a small  auxiliary  transformer  is  provided  to  tilt  the 
bulb  and  automatically  restart  the  outfit  whenever 
the  current  has  been  interrupted  by  line  voltage 
fluctuations.  A relay  energized  by  the  charging- 
current  disconnects  the  tilting  outfit  as  soon  as  the 
arc  starts  up  in  the  bulb,  and  reconnects  it  when- 
ever the  current  fails  for  any  reason.  This  is  par- 
ticularly important  for  private  garage  installations, 
where  charging  is  done  at  night  without  attendance, 
as  it  ensures  a full  charge  in  the  morning.  For 
public  garages  where  attendance  is  available,  a simi- 
lar outfit  is  available  arranged  for  hand  starting 
only.  Its  outside  appearance  is  the  same  as  in  the 
case  of  the  automatic  outfit.  The  dial  switches  on 
both  outfits  permit  adjusting  the  current  without 
putting  out  the  arc.  The  design  of  the  transformer 
and  reactance  is  such  that  no  change  of  adjustment 
is  ordinarily  necessary  during  a charge. 

A circuit  breaker  on  the  automatic  outfit,  and  a 
fuse  on  the  hand-starting  outfit,  give  protection 
against  overload  or  reversed  polarities. 


169 


(Figure  75)  shows  a rectifier  outfit  that  has  been 
simplified  down  to  its  essential  elements  in  order 


Type  W Simplified  Low  Price  Rectifier. 


to  till  the  demand  for  an  outfit  of  low  first  cost. 
The  transformer  and  reactance  have  been  combined 
in  one  coil  and  control  is  by  means  of  link  connec- 
tions instead  of  dial  switches.  Hand  starting  only 
is  provided.  This  outfit  is  suitable  for  use  where 
only  a single  vehicle  is  to  be  charged,  and  is  de- 
signed to  cover  a comparatively  narrow  range  of 
cells  including  only  the  most  commonly  used  bat- 
teries. As  no  changes  of  adjustment  are  ordinarily 
needed  during  a charge,  the  lack  of  dial  switches 
causes  little  inconvenience. 


170 


For  garages  handling  a number  of  vehicles, 
whether  of  the  pleasure  or  commercial  type,  the 
rectifier  units  (Fig.  74),  will  prove  very  satis- 
factory, flexible  and  efficient.  If  but  one  car  is  to 
be  charged  at  a time,  but  one  rectifier  unit  need 
be  run  while  on  the  other  hand  if  a number  of  bat- 
teries are  to  be  charged  then  the  required  number 
of  rectifier  units  to  supply  this  demand  may  be 
added.  This  feature  does  not  obtain  with  either 
the  motor  generator  set  or  the  rotary  converter  as 
either  of  these  machines  operate  as  a unit  irrespec- 
' tive  of  the  number  of  batteries  charging.  This 
flexibilty  of  the  mercury  arc  rectifier  is  a very  im- 
portant feature,  not  only  afifecting  the  efficiency  of 
the  garage  apparatus  in  operation,  but  allowing  the 
establishment  to  add  equipment  from  time  to  time, 
providing,  of  course,  that  the  estimated  demands  at 
the  beginning  or  after  a reasonable  interval  of  time 
of  operation  do  not  require  the  installation  of  a 
motor  generator  set. 

It  requires  a certain  dissipation  of  energy  to 
maintain  the  arc  in  a mercury  tube  which  is  evi- 
denced in  the  form  of  heat  and  a small  quantity  of 
light.  The  voltage  required  to  maintain  this  arc  is 
about  15  volts  and  is  practically  constant  for  all 
currents  which  the  tube  will  stand,  thus  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  rectifier  depends  upon  the  total  volt- 
age delivered  to  the  battery  or  in  other  words,  the 
greater  the  number  of  cells  charged  within  the 
limits  of  the  rectifier  the  greater  will  be  the  effi- 
ciency. In  practice  this  efficiency  increases  from 
70%  at  60  volts  D.  C.  to  80%  at  175  volts  D.  C. 


171 


As  to  the  life  of  the  tube,  a good  tube  should  last 
at  least  600  hours,  but  many  have  run  6000  hours 
or  more.  This  is  practically  the  only  part  of  the 
apparatus  which  will  wear  out  under  normal  aver- 
age use. 

The  mercury  arc  rectifier  is  usually  operated 
from  a single-phase  alternating  current  circuit,  or 
one  phase  of  a three-phase  circuit.  The  fre- 


Fig.  76 — Motor  Generator,  A.C.,  Motor,  D.C.  Generator. 


quency  upon  which  the  mercury  arc  rectifier 
will  operate  may  be  from  25  to  140  cycles  with 
slight  changes  in  the  apparatus.  The  voltage 
impressed  is  either  no  or  220  volts.  Higher  volt- 
ages than  these  may  be  easily  reduced  to  these 
values  through  suitable  transformers.  The  maxi- 
mum current  which  a single  tube  is  capable  of  giv- 


172 


ing  is  50  amperes  at  continuous  operation.  Larger 
currents  than  this  are  obtained  by  arranging  a num- 
ber of  rectifiers  in  parallel  by  means  of  an  auxiliary 
control  j^anel. 

MOTOR  GENERATORS. 

The  motor  generator  has  two  applications  in  ve- 
hicle charging,  namely,  changing  direct  current  of 
a high  voltage  to  no  volts  or  less  (Fig.  76)  and 
for  changing  alternating  current  to  direct  current 
of  suitable  voltage  (Fig.  77).  In  speaking  of  di- 
rect current  voltages,  220  volts  and  over,  it  was 
recommended  that  it  was  very  much  more  econom- 
ical to  install  a motor  generator  set  than  to  charge 


Fig.  77 — Motor  Generator  Set,  D.C.  Motor,  D.C.  Generator. 


through  a resistance  on  account  of  the  great  loss  in 
the  rheostat.  Where  charging  is  temporary  or  in- 
frequent this  condition  will  of  course  not  apply,  but 
in  nearly  all  cases  it  will  be  found  upon  calculation 
that  it  is  more  efficient  to  use  the  set.  The  effi- 
ciency will  increase  directly  with  the  number  of 
vehicles  charged  at  the  same  time  from  the  gen- 
173 


erator.  It  is  often  found  advisable  to  operate  the 
motor  generator  when  the  load  is  heavy,  that  is,  a 
considerable  number  of  cars  charging  and  to  sliut 
it  down  and  charge  from  a few  rectifiers  when  the 
number  of  cars  is  not  sufficient  to  justify  the  op- 
eration of  the  mot'or  generator  with  economy. 

Rotary  Converter.  This  piece  of  machinery 


Fig.  78 — Lincoln  Electric  Charger. 


produces  the  results  efifected  by  the  rectifier  and  the 
motor  generator  set,  but  usually  requires  a larger 
number  of  cars  to  be  charged  for  efficient  results. 


174 


LINCOLN  CHARGER. 

The  apparatus  used  for  charging  electric  cars  in 
the  usual  private  garage  is  divided  in  one  sense  into 
two  classes : 

First,  apparatus  on  which  the  variation  of  voltage 
of  supply  current  will  affect  the  charging  rate  and 
those  which  do  not. 

The  first  class  is  represented  by  the  mercury  arc 
rectifier  and  the  rotary  converter. 

The  second  class  is  represented  by  all  classes  of 
motor  generator  sets  in  which  a motor  of  the  induc- 
tion type  is  used  for  driving  the  generator  which 
charges  the  battery. 

The  apparatus  is  divided  into  these  two  classes 
for  the  following  reason : 

Lead  batteries  must  be  charged  at  the  end  of  the 
charge  at  a very  low  rate.  If  this  is  not  done, 
destructive  gassing  and  heating  occur.  Since  the 
internal  resistance  of  a lead  battery  is  small  and 
small  variations  of  voltage  impressed  on  the  battery 
terminals  will  make  a large  variation  in  charging 
rate,  therefore,  with  whatever  type  of  apparatus  is 
used  for  charging,  if  the  voltage  impressed  on  the 
battery  terminals  is  varied  even  slightly  it  will  make 
a large  difference  in  the  rate  at  which  the  charging 
is  done.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  line  voltage 
in  any  district,  particularly,  in  the  residential  and 
outlying  districts  is  subject  to  considerable  variation 
on  account  of  variation  in  load.  Unfortunately  this 
variation  is  in  the  wrong  direction  for  safety  of  the 
battery.  The  voltage  starts  in  lowest  when  the  load 


175 


is  heaviest  and  is  highest  when  the  load  is  lightest. 
The  battery  in  the  usual  private  garage  is  charged 
during  the  night,  the  charging  being  completed  early 
in  the  morning. 

In  the  usual  residential  district  the  voltage  is 
somewhat  lower  from  8 to  lo  o'clock  than  it  is  from 
4 to  5 o’clock  the  following  morning  when  the 
charge  is  generally  completed.  This  means  that 
with  a setting  which  will  give  a proper  finishing 
rate  at  g o’clock  in  the  evening,  there  will  be  too 
high  a finishing  rate  if  the  battery  finishes  up  at  5 
o’clock  in  the  morning. 

This  variation  is  not  nearly  as  large  in  the  very 
large  cities  as  it  is  in  some  of  the  smaller  towns 
but  it  is  present  to  a certain  extent  in  all  cases.  This 
has  caused  the  battery  builders  and  consequently 
the  car  builders  to  seek  some  type  of  charg- 
ing apparatus  whose  charging  rate  will  not  be  de- 
pendent upon  the  line  voltage.  This  has  brought 
to  the  front  the  use  of  a motor  generator  set  for 
this  purpose  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  line 
voltage  has  no  effect  whatsoever  on  the  charging 
rate.  A variation  of  25%  above  or  below  normal 
in  line  voltage  will  make  absolutely  no  difference  in 
the  finishing  rate  of  the  charge.  This  has  meant 
that  particularly  in  the  last  few  years,  there  has  been 
a very  large  application  of  motor  generator  sets  to 
charging  work  especially  where  skilled  attendance 
is  not  present.  The  slightly  lower  electrical  effi- 
ciency is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  enor- 
mously less  battery  depreciation  and  charger  de- 
preciation, since  a well  built  motor  generator  set 


176 


will  operate  on  this  charging  work  indefinitely  with- 
out appreciable  wear. 

As  an  example  of  this  fact,  let  us  take  a standard 
equipment  and  assume  conditions  which  are  more 
or  less  standard  all  over  the  country.  Suppose  we 
take  a battery  equipment  of  40  amperes,  thirteen 
plates.  This  will  take  under  normal  conditions  80 
amperes  to  charge  when  the  battery  is  in  good  con- 
dition and  the  car  is  in  good  condition  also.  180 
ampere  hours  input  will  give  a full  charge  in 
this  battery.  Data  from  a large  number  of  batteries 
which  have  been  in  service  show  that  under  average 
conditions  when  a battery  is  charged  with  a rectifier, 
that  7,500  miles  is  its  life.  There  are  a number  of 
battery  builders  willing  to  guarantee  that  if  charged 
with  a non-gassing,  non-heating  schedule  which  a 
properly  built  motor  generator  set  will  give,  that  this 
battery  life  will  be  doubled.  Let  us  then  assume 
that  the  cost  of  power  is  4c  per  k.w.h.  that  the  k.w. 
hrs.  input  to  charge  with  the  rectifier  will  be  21^, 
with  the  properly  built  charger.  The  battery  cost 
of  an  outfit  similar  to  the  one  above  will  be  approxi- 
mate $250,  then  our  comparative  cost  to  charge 
will  be  as  follows : 

Current  cost  with  rectifier,  86c  or  i.o8c  per  mile. 
Tube  depreciation  on  a basis  of  $22.50  as  the  cost 
of  tube  and  300  hours  the  guaranteed  life  of  the 
tube,  .6c  per  mile.  Battery  depreciation  on  a basis 
of  $250  as  the  cost  of  the  battery,  7,500  miles  as 
its  life,  3.3c  per  mile.  Total  cost  per  mile,  5.07c. 

Now  let  us  consider  its  cost  under  the  conditions 
of  being  charged  on  a non-gassing,  non-heating 


177 


schedule  as  would  be  given  by  the  Lincoln  charger. 

Current  cost,  96c  per  charge  or  1.2c  per  mile. 
Charger  depreciation,  negligable,  as  there  is  no  tube 
or  other  such  devices  to  depreciate.  Battery  depre- 
ciation on  basis  of  15,000  miles,  i^c  per  mile.  Total 
cost,  2.87c  per  mile. 

This  covers  the  reason  why  a charger  of  this  type 
is  supplanting  the  use  of  the  rectifier.  A description 
of  this  outfit  will  be  about  as  follows : 

The  scheme  that  the  manufacturer  had  in  mind 
in  making  it  was  to  come  as  close  to  a constant 
])otential  charge  as  is  practical  and  still  keep  the 
size  and  efficiency  of  the  charger  up  to  the  highest 
possible  point.  By  so  doing  it  was  possible  to  get 
an  outfit  which  will  start  off  at  a rate  of  40  to  60 
amperes  and  finish  up  at  a rate  of  8 amperes,  or 
less.  This  will  give  a charge  which  is  absolutely 
non-gassing  and  non-heating  and  which  will  keep 
the  battery  in  the  very  best  condition.  No  mat- 
ter what  happens  on  the  line,  whether  the  volt- 
age rises  or  falls,  whether  it  is  interrupted  entirely 
for  short  periods,  the  charge  is  made  complete  and 
is  always  on  a non-gassing,  non-heating  schedule. 
The  details  of  construction  have  been  carried  out 
so  that  the  set  is  built  together,  the  armature  mount- 
ed in  ball  bearings  and  the  whole  set  connected  and 
wired  to  the  switchbox  so  that  all  that  is  necessary 
to  do  when  the  apparatus  is  received  by  the  user 
is  to  screw  the  switchbox  to  the  wall,  insert  the 
plug  into  the  car,  connect  the  leads  from  the  supply 
line  to  the  two  lugs  in  the  box,  close  the  switch  and 
then  the  charge  will  be  completed  in  from  eight  to 


178 


twelve  hours  and  the  charge  also  will  be  perfect. 
If  it  is  left  on  less  than  8 hours,  the  charge  is  not 
quite  complete,  and  if  it  is  left  on  more  than  14 
hours  no  damage  is  done,  in  fact,  this  could  be  left 
on  a week  at  a time  without  any  damage  whatever 
to  the  battery  or  the  apparatus. 

These  reasons  have  determined  the  application  of 
this  apparatus  to  charging  rather  than  the  mercury 
arc  rectifier. 

Mechanical  and  Synchronous  Rectifiers.  Con- 
siderable experimenting  has  been  made  upon 
mechanical,  chemical  and  synchronous  rectifiers, 
but  up  to  the  present  time  they  are  available  only 
for  rectifying  currents  of  small  amperage,  not  being 
adapted  to  the  charging  of  electric  vehicles,  espe- 
cially in  numbers. 

Boosting.  Hastening  a charge  or  ''Boosting''  is 
very  often  a feature  of  value  in  electric  vehicle 
operation,  and  if  there  is  any  likelihood  of  high  rate 
charges  being  necessary,  the  charging  apparatus  in- 
stalled should  be  capable  of  maintaining  the  required 
current  without  undue  heating.  Not  only  the  in- 
struments and  resistance  should  be  of  capacity,  suf- 
ficient to  operate  under  these  conditions,  but  all 
wiring  on  the  charging  panels  and  vehicles  as  well. 

Temperature  is  a limiting  feature  in  storage  bat- 
tery charging.  The  current  is  limited  only  by  the 
maximum  allowable  temperature  (page  50)  and 
the  gassing.  For  lead  batteries  the  gassing  should 
be  kept  a minimum  at  all  times;  Edison  cells  are 
not  aflfected  by  the  gassing,  temperature  only  re- 
quiring consideration.  The  necessity  for  boost- 


179 


ing  is  practically  eliminated  in  the  small  private 
garage,  but  in  public  garages  is  a very  important 
feature  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  current  in  excess 
of  tw^o  hundred  amperes  from  a charging  plug 
could  be  utilized  for  this  purpose,  in  maintaining 
vehicle  operation  during  adverse  w^eather  and 
road  conditions.  For  this  reason  this  item  should 
be  considered  in  the  choice  of  apparatus  for  an 
installation. 

The  word  '^Booster’’  is  used  in  another  connec- 
tion, and  designates  a direct  current  generator  of 
low  voltage  but  of  ample  current  carrying  capacity. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  the  direct  current  volt- 
age supplied  is  no  volts  and  that  6o  cells  of  Edi- 
son battery  or  44  cells  of  lead  battery,  requiring 
no  volts,  are  to  be  charged.  Should  the  line  volt- 
age be  less,  however,  or  it  be  required  to  increase 
the  rate  by  increasing  the  voltage  then  the  booster 
would  increase  the  voltage  the  desired  amount,  car- 
rying the  current  so  dealt  with  through  its  arma- 
ture. This  use  is  resorted  to  in  some  cases  when 
the  capacity  of  the  existing  apparatus  is  found  in- 
adequate in  the  above  respect,  rather  than  install 
a new  equipment.  Excepting  for  this  use  in  ve- 
hicle battery  charging  there  is  little  occasion  for  the 
use  of  a booster,  its  application  being  confined  in 
most  cases  to  large  lighting  battery  installations. 


180 


ISOLATED  PLANTS 


As  a general  rule  it  may  be  said  that,  except  in 
very  few  cases,  the  isolated  plant  cannot  compete 
with  the  central  station  in  supplying  current  for 
vehicle  charging.  This  applies  both  to  the  price 
and  flexibility  of  the  service  rendered.  There  are 
peculiar  conditions  existing  in  some  localities  which 
do  however  merit  the  use  of  a steam  or  hydro-car- 
bon engine  and  generator. 

Should  no  power  be  available  from  a central  sta- 
tion, as  obtains  with  some  farms,  country  homes, 
hotels  or  factories,  then  the  problem  resolves  itself 
into  the  choice  of  the  proper  size  of  electric  outfit, 
as  electric  light  and  power  for  kindred  devices  are 
demanded  in  most  cases.  Usually  a 115-125-volt 
generating  set,  gasoline  or  oil  engine  driven,  will  be 
found  thoroughly  satisfactory  and  economical,  pro- 
viding that  apparatus  designed  for  this  use  is  in- 
stalled. Makeshift  combinations  of  engine  and 
generator,  ill  suited  to  combined  operation,  can 
hardly  be  recommended  as  the  little  attention  given, 
and  the  probable  absence  of  expert  service  in  time 
of  need,  would  make  the  results  not  only  unsatis- 
factory, but  more  costly  in  the  long  run.  The  ca- 
pacity of  the  equipment  should  be  determined  with 
regard  to  the  future  requirements  as  well  as  the 
present  needs.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a fixed 
rule  as  no  two  problems  will  be  identical.  The 
manufacturers  of  recognized  equipments  may  be 
relied  upon  to  effect  a simple  and  economical  solu- 
tion and  -will  gladly  offer  their  services. 


181 


Charging  Stations.  Communication  with  the 
central  station  companies  supplying  electricity  in 
the  larger  cities  of  the  country  has  shown  that 
there  is  at  present  an  abundant  supply  of  charging 
stations,  and  that  the  number  is  constantly  increas- 
ing at  a very  rapid  rate.  The  names  and  locations 
of  these  stations  change  somewhat  from  time  to 
time  so  that  a list  of  the  700  and  more  public  charg- 
ing stations  distributed  over  the  United  States  is 
not  appended.  Definite  information  as  to  the  names 
and  locations  of  these  stations  may  be  readily  se- 
cured by  communicating  directly  with  the  central 
station  company  supplying  the  district  concerned. 
In  practically  all  cases  the  electric  lighting  and 
power  companies  have  these  lists,  supplemented 
with  road  maps  and  other  attractive  information 
of  local  character.  The  Electric  Vehicle  Section, 
N.  E.  L.  A.,  maintains  a bureau  for  the  dissemina- 
tion of  such  knowledge,  and  communication  will 
bring  forth  the  desired  information. 

The  number  of  public  charging  stations  given 
above  includes  only  those  which  operate  for  public 
garaging  of  electric  vehicles  The  large  number 
of  private  commercial  installations,  such  as  brew- 
eries, express  companies,  department  stores,  gro- 
cers, etc.,  owning  fleets  of  vehicles  garaged  in  their 
own  installations,  are  not  included  The  number 
of  electric  passenger  vehicles  is  increasing  very 
steadily,  and  as  the  small  private  garage  with  charg- 
ing set  adjacent  to  the  residence  is  attractive  and 
convenient,  the  number  of  private  garages  for  pleas- 


182 


Lire  cars  will  be  found  to  be  several  times  in  excess 
of  the  number  given  for  public  stations. 

When  the  electric  is  to  be  charged  at  a station 
other  than  its  regular  garage,  a plug  should  be  car- 
ried so  that  the  necessary  wiring  arrangements  may 
be  conveniently  secured,  and  the  capacity  and 
charging  rates  of  the  battery  should  be  recorded 
and  carried  for  convenient  reference. 


188 


CHAPTER  VII. 


MEASURING  INSTRUMENTS:  ELECTRI- 
CAL AND  MECHANICAL. 

In  the  explanations  of  operation  and  instructions 
for  the  care  of  practically  each  item  of  the  electri- 
cal apparatus  concerned  with  the  electric  vehicle, 
reference  has  been  made  to  the  electrical  quantities, 
current,  potential,  resistance  and  power.  These  are 
measured  respectively  in  terms  of  the  units,  am- 
peres, volts*  ohms  and  watts.  The  unit  of  electro- 
motive force  (the  volt)  will  cause  unit  current  (one 
ampere)  to  flow  in  a circuit  of  unit  resistance  (one 
ohm).  This  expression  is  a simple  but  fundamental 
equation  of  electrical  phenomena  and  is  called 
Ohm’s  Law.  From  it  are  derived,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  proper  mathematics,  all  of  the  whys  and 
wherefores  of  modern  electrical  engineering.  For 
the  purposes  of  this  book,  however,  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  complicate  matters  with  these  technicalities. 
The  simple  relation  given  above  is  sufficient  for  an 
understanding  of  the  usual  manipulations  incident 
to  electric  vehicle  operation. 

The  flow  or  passage  of  current  in  a circuit  pro- 
duces a definite  amount  of  power,  which  is  meas- 
ured in  watts.  The  watt  is  the  product  of  one  volt 
and  one  ampere.  The  kilowatt  is  i,ooo  watts.  Thus 
the  amount  of  energy  used  in  one  hour,  when 
the  power  exerted  in  one  kilowatt,  is  one  kilo-watt- 
hour. 

These  quantities  defined  in  terms  of  the  units  are 
very  readily  measured  by  means  of  the  electrical 

184 


measuring  instruments,  ammeter  (ampere-meter), 
voltmeter,  ampere-hour  meter,  and  watt-hour  meter. 

Voltmeter.  The  voltmeter  indicates  the  dififer- 
ence  of  potential,  or  voltage,  of  any  number  of  cells 
of  the  storage  battery  or  of  the  supply  circuit  from 
the  power  station.  The  magnitude  of  the  voltage 
to  be  measured  determines  the  range  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  scale  of  the  instrument  depends  upon 
the  voltages  to  be  measured  normally  and  the  high- 
est which  may  be  measured.  The  scales  usually 
used  are  0-3,  0-15,  o-iio,  0-150,  0-250,  and  0-300 
volts.  The  scale  shows  the  maximum  voltage  for 
which  the  instrument  is  to  be  used,  as  higher  volt- 
ages would  send  too  much  current  through  the  fine 
wire  of  its  coils  and  burn  them  out.  The  meter 
measuring  up  to  3 volts  is  used  for  indicating  the 
voltage  of  individual  cells  of  the  battery  and  should 
not  be  used  on  more  than  one  cell.  A meter  of  1^0- 
volt  range  is  suitable  to  measure  any  voltage  up 
to  150  volts,  such  as  the  complete  battery  voltage 
or  the  voltage  of  a charging  circuit  of  no  or  125 
volts.  If  the  wiring  be  of  the  three-wire  system 
having  230  or  250  volts  across  the  outside  wires, 
then  it  is  evident  that  the  meter  should  be  used 
only  between  the  neutral  and  the  outside  wires,  and 
not  placed  across  the  250-volt  potential.  For  the 
measurement  of  this  voltage,  an  instrument  having 
a 300-volt  scale  should  be  used. 

The  scale  is  a part  of  the  instrument,  is  cali- 
brated and  is  correct  for  its  own  instrument  only.  - 
The  question  might  be  asked  if  placing  a o-150-volt 
scale  on  a 0-3-volt  meter  would  permit  the  measur- 


186 


ing  of  potentials  up  to  150  volts.  From  what  has 
been  said  above  it  should  be  clear  that  such  can- 
not be  done  as  the  wiring  of  the  instrument  is  suffi- 
cient only  for  3 volts,  as  indicated  by  the  scale. 

Figure,  79  illustrates  a voltmeter  which  adequately 
fulfills  the  requirements  of  a small  portable  com- 
bination instrument  for  general  testing  of  apparatus 
operated  with  batteries,  or  testing  of  any  low  volt- 


Fig.  79 — Portable  Volt- Ammeter  with  Triple  Scale. 

age  direct  current  circuits.  The  instrument  con- 
tains in  a single  case,  an  ammeter  of  three  ranges 
and  a voltmeter  of  three  ranges.  These  instruments 
are  arranged  to  show  polarity,  have  no  hysteresis 
error  and  are  of  low  internal  losses,  employing  per- 
manent magnets  so  as  to  correctly  measure  the  aver- 


186 


age  value  of  a pulsating  direct  current — this  being 
the  value  generally  required  for  storage  battery 
work,  especially  where  charging  is  effected  from  a 
mercury  arc  rectifier.  The  instrument  may  be  used 
to  measure  either  a 3,  30  or  150- volt  capacity,  and 
in  amperes  .3  to  3O'.  The  instrument  is  easily  con- 
nected, having  only  two  binding  posts.  By  turning 
a rotary  switch,  any  one  of  the  various  capacities 
is  set. 

The  leads  of  a voltmeter  are  thin  flexible  cop- 
per insulated  wires  attached  to  the  positive  and 
negative  binding  posts  of  the  meter.  The  free  ends 
are  then  applied  to  the  source  whose  potential  is 
to  be  measured.  Both  leads  must  first  be  secured 
to  the  meter  binding  posts  before  the  free  ends  are 
used  in  order  to  avoid  damage  from  accidental 
short  circuit.  The  same  positive  meter  terminal 
is  conventionally  used  for  each  of  the  scales  when 
the  instrument  has  more  than  one.  Care  should  be 
taken,  when  the  voltage  to  be  measured  is  not  ap- 
proximately known,  to  use  the  high  voltage  scale 
to  determine  the  reading  roughly  so  that  danger 
of  burning  out  the  low  reading  coil  may  be  avoided. 

The  lead  from  the  positive  binding  post,  which 
is  marked  ( + ),  should  be  applied  to  the  positive 
wire  or  pole  of  the  battery,  and  the  negative  lead 
upon  the  negative  pole,  respectively.  Where  the 
voltmeter  is  used  as  a means  of  determining  which 
is  the  positive  wire  or  tracing  out  connections,  then 
the  positive  lead  should  be  held  fast  to  one  pole  and 
the  end  of  the  other  lead  tapped  on  the  supposed 


187 


negative  pole.  The  pointer  should  be  carefully 
watched  when  the  lead  is  tapped.  If  the  pointer 
reads  in  the  right  direction,  that  is,  gives  a reading 
on  the  scale  of  the  instrument,  then  the  assumption 
of  positive  and  negative  was  correct.  Should  the 
pointer  indicate  in  the  wrong  direction,  however, 
then  the  position  of  the  free  ends  of  the  leads 
should  be  reversed  immediately,  as  a violent  throw 
of  the  needle  in  the  wrong  direction  would  be  very 
likely  to  bend  it. 

The  remarks  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  are 
general,  applying  to  portable  as  well  as  switch- 
board or  dashboard  types  of  meters.  Switchboard 
meters,  of  course,  when  once  placed  in  position 
require  no  change  of  connections  as  they  are  made 
on  the  back  of  the  board  so  that,  when  the  switches 
are  closed,  the  voltmeter  will  indicate.  On  large 
switchboards  consisting  of  a number  of  circuits,  it 
is  usual  to  use  one  voltmeter  and  one  ammeter  for 
each  panel  of  six  circuits,  a selective  dial  allowing 
the  voltage  of  each  circuit  to  be  read. 

In  order  to  secure  accuracy  in  electric  measuring 
instruments,  it  is  necessary  to  have  them  extremely 
well  balanced.  This  is  accomplished  by  making  the 
moving  system  as  light  as  possible  and  pivoting  it 
upon  polished  jewels.  The  instrument  is  thus  as 
delicate  as  a watch  and  so  should  not  be  handled 
roughly.  As  to  making  adjustments,  it  may  be 
said  that  unless  such  are  explained  and  recom- 
mended by  the  manufacturers  they  should  not  be 
attempted.  It  is  preferable  in  the  majority  of 
cases  to  place  the  instrument  in  the  hands  of  a 


188 


competent  instrument  man  or  return  it  to  the  manu- 
facturer for  a small  repair  rather  than  to  meddle 
with  it  and  then  send  it  for  complete  overhauling, 
as  would  probably  then  be  necessary. 

The  low  reading  voltmeter  having  a 3-volt  range 
IS  made  in  many  convenient  forms  for  use  in  go- 
ing over  individual  cells,  on  charge  and  discharge 


Fig.  80 — Miniature  D’Arsonval  Testing  Voltmeter. 


or  for  cadmium  readings.  Care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  the  use  of  such  a meter  as  its  usefulness 
depends  upon  its  accuracy,  Fig.  80. 

The  voltmeters  placed  upon  the  dash,  or  in  any 
other  convenient  location  in  the  vehicle,  are  usually 
combined  in  one  case  and  on  the  same  base  with 
the  ammeter,  so  that  both  may  be  easily  and  simul- 


180 


taneously  noted,  Fig.  8i.  They  are  made  as  rugged 
as  possible  so  as  to  withstand  the  effects  of  travel 
over  rough  pavements.  The  leads  are  placed  so  as  to 
give  the  voltage  applied  to  the  motor,  whether  the 
battery  is  in  series  or  in  parallel,  during  the  dis- 
charge. On  charge  the  cells  are  practically  always 


Fig.  81 — Illuminated  Twin  Automobile  Alnmeter  and  Voltmetei. 


charged  in  series  so  that  the  voltmeter  then  gives 
the  voltage  applied  across  the  battery  in  charging. 

As  explained  under  ''vStorage  Batteries,’’  there 
is  a maximum  voltage  reached  on  charge  and  a 
safe  minimum  voltage  on  discharge  with  normal 
current  flow.  These  amounts  may  be,  and  often 
are,  indicated  on  the  scale  of  the  meter  in  red  lines 
by  the  vehicle  manufacturers  so  that  they  may  be 
readily  observed  in  charging  or  during  operation. 

Ammeter.  The  instrument  used  to  measure  the 
electric  current  in  amperes  is  the  ammeter.  It  is 
very  similar  to  the  voltmeter  in  construction,  but  is 
placed  in  series  with  the  circuit  instead  of  across 
it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  82.  What  has  been  said  of  the 
scale  ranges  of  voltmeters  is  also  true  of  ammeter 


100 


scales,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  currents 
jn  excess  of  the  scale  range  are  permitted  only 
for  very  short  periods,  as  damage  to  the  meter 
would  otherwise  be  likely  to  result.  Ammeters 
used  in  storage  battery  work  generally  have  a zero 


. + 

lili*— |i|h 

Bottery 

+ 

Voltmeter 

Ammeter 

) 

Fig.  82 — Method  of  Connecting  Voltmeter  and  Ammeter  in 
Circuit. 


centre  scale,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83,  so  that  no  change 
of  connections  need  be  made  when  reversing  from 
charge  to  discharge  of  the  battery.  It  would  other- 
wise be  necessary  to  do  so,  as  the  current  flows  in 
opposite  directions  in  charge  and  discharge. 

The  ammeter  measures  the  current  flowing 
through  a special  resistance,  known  as  a shunt. 
Fig.  84,  which  may  be  located  within  the  ammeter 
case  or  external  and  separable  from  it.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  use  the  meter  only  with  the 


191 


shunt  furnished  with  it,  unless  specified  otherwise 
by  the  manufacturer,  as  the  meter  would  not  give 
correct  readings  and  might  be  damaged. 

The  combined  instrument,  voltmeter  and  am- 
meter, Fig.  83,  when  assembled  in  one  case  for  ve- 


Fig.  83 — Vehicle  Type  Volt- Ammeter. 


hide  service,  is  generally  spoken  of  as  a volt-am- 
meter, and  has  met  great  favor  in  giving  the  in- 
formation required  in  the  operation  of  storage  bat- 
tery vehicles. 

The  Ampere-Hour  Meter.  The  voltmeter  and 
ammeter  are  indicating  instruments  which  give  the 
instantaneous  values  of  the  voltage  and  current  of 
the  circuit.  In  practical  storage  battery  operation, 
however,  it  is  very  convenient  to  have  more  in- 
formation than  the  instantaneous  value  of  current 
or  voltage  because,  what  the  operator  of  an  electric 
vehicle  is  most  interested  in,  is  the  mileage  capacity 
of  his  battery.  When  starting  out  with  the  battery 
fully  charged  it  is  known  approximately  how  many 


192 


miles  the  vehicle  can  be  run  upon  a charge,  but,  if 
the  operation  is  discontinued  and  the  car  allowed  to 
stand  or  a routing  selected  which  differs  from  that 
previously  gone  over,  then  the  latter  part  of  the 
discharge  will  not  be  definitely  determined  unless 
the  ampere-hour  meler  is  employed,  which  gives  a 
definite  indication  of  the  remaining  value  of  the 
charge. 


Fig.  84 — Ammeter  Shunt  and  Leads. 


Readings  of  voltage  at  a definite  current  flow 
from  the  battery  will  give  a very  close  idea  of  the 
state  of  charge  in  the  battery,  but,  to  the  inexperi- 
enced or  when  the  instruments  are  not  in  good  con- 
dition, the  results  are  not  always  satisfactory.  Read- 
ings of  specific  gravity  are  the  most  reliable  and 
at  all  times  give  an  absolutely  correct  determina- 
tion of  the  state  of  charge  in  the  battery.  Owing 
to  the  method  of  taking  these  readings,  it  is  evident 
that  such  indications  are  not  practical  for  ordinary 
vehicle  operation,  and  that  some  sort  of  meter, 
which  will  record  the  current  which  has  been  put 


193 


into  and  taken  out  of  the  battery,  is  needed.  Such 
a meter  is  known  as  the  ampere-hour  meter,  Fig. 
85,  and  is  designed  to  measure  the  current  put  in  or 
taken  out  of  the  battery.  It  is  also  designed  to 
compensate  in  its  record  of  the  state  of  charge  or 
discharge  of  the  battery  for  any  loss  which  may 
occur  by  internal  discharge  of  the  battery  within 


Fig.  85 — Ampere-Hour  Meter, 


itself,  which  usually  takes  place  when  the  battery 
remains  unused  for  any  considerable  length  of  time. 

The  ampere-hour  meter  is  of  the  Faraday  motor 
type,  which  depends  in  principle  of  operation  upon 
the  action  of  a magnet  upon  a copper  disc  armature 
free  to  rotate  while  carrying  current  The  sec- 


194 


tional  illustration  (Fig.  86)  shows  the  construction 
of  the  meter  with  the  permanent  magnet  omitted 
so  as  not  to  complicate  the  drawing.  The  arma- 
ture disc  in  this  instance  is  of  copper,  rotating,  and 
submerged  in  a chamber  of  mercury.  The  current 
is  conducted  to  and  from  the  disc  by  contacts  im- 


Fig.  86 — Cross  Section  of  Motor  Element  of  meter. 


bedded  in  suitable  insulating  compound  in  the  walls 
of  the  chamber.  The  mercury  carries  the  current 
from  the  contacts  to  the  armature,  and  also  pro- 
duces an  upward  thrust  on  the  axis  of  the  arma- 
ture so  that  there  is  no  pressure  on  the  lower  sup- 
port or  bearing,  and  only  a slight  pressure  on  the 
upper  support  which  is  practically  the  only  bearing. 
With  this  construction  the  manufacturers  claim  a 


196 


high  degree  of  accuracy  combined  with  freedom 
from  accident  due  to  constant  vibration  and  jarring 
such  as  exists  in  vehicle  operation,  all  vibration 
being  absorbed  in  the  mercury. 

The  upper  part  of  this  shaft  carries  a worm 
that  engages  with  a geared  wheel  which,  through 
a proper  gear  train,  operates  a movable  hand  or 
pointer  rotating  in  front  of  the  face  or  dial  of 
the  meter.  The  current,  or  a portion  of  it  from 
the  meter  shunt,  passes  through  the  armature  of 
the  meter  and  is  reacted  upon  by  the  powerful, 
permanent,  driving  magnet,  so  that  in  combination 
with  the  gear  train,  mentioned  above,  the  large 
pointer  will  rotate,  the  speed  and  amount  of  rota- 
tion depending  upon  the  current  flowing  and  the 
time.  The  voltage  is  not  in  any  way  recorded 
since  we  are  interested  particularly  in  ampere- 
hours. 

Intelligent  use  of  the  ampere-hour  meter  is  a safe^ 
guard  against  too  frequent  charging  of  the  battery, 
overcharging  and  heating.  It  is  well  recognized  that 
the  most  reliable  method  of  determining  the  state 
of  charge  in  a battery  is  comparison  of  the  change 
in  specific  gravity  by  means  of  the  hydrometer 
and  the  use  of  an  ammeter.  This  method,  however, 
can  only  be  taken  advantage  of  when  there  is  direct 
access  to  the  battery,  or  it  is  removed  from  the  vehi- 
cle; and  consequently,  the  ampere-hour  meter  is  the 
most  convenient  means  of  continuously  keeping  the 
state  of  battery  charge  under  observation. 

In  the  case  of  the  lead  battery,  the  specific  gravi- 


196 


ty  is  a definite  indication  of  state  of  charge,  but 
in  Edison  batteries  it  tells  very  little  so  that  the 
meter  is  found  to  be  even  more  useful  with  the 
alkaline  battery  than  with  the  lead  battery.- 

The  meter  equipped  with  a single  shunt  records 
the  true  ampere-hours  charged  into  the  battery  and 
those  drawn  from  the  battery.  It  does  not  take 
into  account,  however,  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary 


Fig.  87 — Diagram  of  Variable  Resister  Type  Sangamo  Ampere-hour 
Meter. 


to  put  more  ampere-hours  into  the  battery  than 
can  be  removed  from  it  in  any  succeeding  discharge. 
In  order  to  compensate  automatically  for  this  in- 
efficiency, an  arrangement  known  as  a ''differential 
shunt''  is  incorporated  in  the  earlier  types  of  this 
meter,  but  this  device  has  been  superseded  by  a 
"Resistor  Element"  in  all  later  instruments ; both 
allowing  a percentage  overcharge  to  be  given. 
There  is  a range  of  adjustment  for  ro  to  25% 


197 


variation.  Lead  batteries  are  generally  set  from 
lo  to  15  per  cent,  slow  and  Edison  batteries  from 
15  to  25  per  cent.  The  amount  of  overcharge  thus 
given  is  determined  by  the  class  or  condition  of 
service  in  which  the  vehicle  is  to  operate.  If  the 
vehicle  is  to  be  only  partly  discharged  each  day  or 
used  in  a section  of  good  and  level  roads,  then  it 
does  not  need  as  much  overcharge  as  when  it  cov- 
ers a severe  route. 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  two  methods  which 
may  be  employed  in  showing  the  recording  on  the 
meter  dial.  One  is  to  have  the  hand  move  clock- 
wise on  discharge  and  counter  clockwise,  or  back 
to  the  zero  point  or  top  of  the  dial,  on  charge, 
while  the  other  is  to  reverse  this  sequence.  The 
advantage  of  the  former  is  that  the  position  of  the 
hand  at  any  time  during  discharge  shows  exactly 
how  many  ampere-hours  have  been  taken  from  the 
battery,  and,  when  the  pointer  reaches  the  zero 
mark  in  charging,  then  use  may  be  made  of  a zero 
contact  or  ^'stop  charge’'  feature.  The  second  ar- 
rangement mentioned  does  not  allow  of  this  auto- 
matic feature,  but  gives  a direct  reading  of  the 
amount  still  available  in  the  battery. 

The  instructions  which  have  been  given  in  Chap- 
ter III.  on  the  care  and  operation  of  storage  bat- 
teries are  not  affected  by  the  use  of  an  ampere- 
hour  meter,  and  precautions  which  are  given  there 
are  not  to  be  abridged  with  the  use  of  this  instru- 
ment. The  regular  overcharge  which  is  prescribed 
for  both  lead  and  Edison  batteries  should  also  be 


198 


given,  and  may  be  accomplislied  readily  by  resetting 
the  main  hand  the  desired  number  of  ampere  hours 
before  beginning  the  charging. 

The  resetting  device  for  the  main  hand, 
while  not  necessary  for  ordinary  charging,  may 


Fig.  88 — Type  D-5  Ampere-hour  Meter  with  Totalizing  Circles  on 
Dial. 

be  found  very  useful  for  the  regular  over- 
charge every  two  or  three  weeks,  or  when  a 
new  battery  is  substituted  for  the  one  which 
has  been  operating  in  the  car,  and  the  position  of 
the  hand  on  the  dial  is  not  “in  step’’  with  the  bat- 
tery, that  is,  when  the  pointer  does  not  give  the 


199 


true  condition  of  charge  in  the  battery.  By  this 
means  it  is  possible  to  arrange  the  pointer  so  that, 
when  it  reaches  the  zero  mark  after  allowing  the 
required  charge,  it  will  operate  the  zero  contact 
Teature  and  discontinue  the  charge  automatically. 
The  manufacturers  have  furnished  the  device  with 
a cap  so  that  tampering  by  unauthorized  persons 
is  avoided,  and  injury  by  jamming  or  stripping  of 
gears  in  the  clockwork  while  resetting  is  prevented. 

The  zero  contact  or  stop  charge  feature,  which 
has  been  referred  to  in  preceding  paragraphs,  con- 
sists of  a contact  at  the  zero  point  on  the  dial 
operated  by  the  pointer.  When  the  pointer  is  re- 
volved back  to  the  zero  position  indicating  that  the 
battery  is  fully  charged,  then  the  contact  completes 
a circuit  to  a circuit-breaker,  which  causes  the  lat- 
ter to  open,  discontinuing  the  flow  of  current 
through  the  battery  to  which  the  meter  is  connected. 
This  device  depends  only  upon  the  ampere-hours 
and  not  upon  the  voltage  of  the  supply  circuit  or 
the  battery,  differing  from  the  method  employed 
in  the  mercury  arc  rectifier,  where  the  current  is 
reduced  as  the  effective  voltage  deceases  as  the 
charge  progresses.  This  is  a very  convenient  fea- 
ture in  many  instances,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  small  private  garages  in  which  a pleasure 
vehicle  may  be  placed  upon  charge  late  in  the  eve- 
ning, or  after  reaching  home  from  the  theatre,  and 
the  charge  automatically  discontinued  during  the 
night  or  early  morning,  according  to  the  amount 
required,  without  necessitating  further  attention 
from  the  owner. 


200 


The  dial  of  the  meter  is  graduated  in  ampere- 
hours  and  the  unit  number  of  ampere-hours,  per 
revolution  of  the  hand,  should  be  somewhat  more 
than  the  greatest  discharge  capacity  of  the  battery, 
so  that,  if  it  be  required  to  give  an  overcharge. 


Fig.  S9 — Type  D-5  Ampere-hour  Meter  with  “Duplex”  Recording 
Train. 

making  use  of  the  resetting  of  the  main  hand,  the 
complete  charge  in  ampere-hours  may  be  indicated 
upon  the  dial.  Sometimes  a second  hand  is  added, 
turned  by  means  of  a knurled  head  at  the  centre 
of  the  glass  in  front  of  the  dial.  This  hand  is  not 
connected  with  the  main  hand  or  mechanism  of  the 


201 


meter  in  any  way  and  is  used  only  by  the  operator 
in  being  set  at  an  arbitrary  reading  of  the  dial  for 
reference  such  as  the  maximum  safe  discharge  ca- 
pacity. Thus  as  the  battery  increases  in  capacity 
during  life,  the  position  may  be  changed  using  a 
gradually  increased  reading  as  the  safe  maximum 
discharge. 

As  explained  above,  the  large  hand  operates 
through  suitable  gearing,  and,  as  it  rotates  the  meter 
speed  is  proportional  to  the  ampere-hours  and  will 
indicate  the,  ampere-hours  input  plus  the  necessary 
overcharge,  or  the  true  ampere-hour  output. 

This  large  pointer  gives  the  condition  of  charge 
for  one  cycle  of  charge  or  discharge,  as  it  operates 
in  one  direction  for  charge  and  in  the  reverse  di- 
rection for  discharge. 

In  addition  to  this  pointer  a recording  train  is 
sometimes  included,  Fig.  88,  this  being  so  connect- 
ed to  the  pointer  through  suitable  gearing  that  it 
will  record  the  total  ampere-hours  of  charge  or 
discharge  during  several  cycles,  or  for  any  con- 
siderable period. 

For  special  cases  it  is  possible  to  furnish  a dial, 
termed  by  the  manufacturers  the  ''Duplex  Train/’ 
Fig.  89,  arranged  to  record  the  total  of  both 
charge  and  discharge.  In  using  this  arrangement, 
however,  it  is  not  possible  to  use  the  large  pointer 
to  indicate  the  condition  of  the  battery  for  each 
individual  charge  and  discharge.  For  any  given 
voltage  the  readings  of  charge  may  be  calibrated 
upon  the  dial  in  kilowatt  hours  instead  of  am- 
pere-hours input.  In  connection  with  an  odome- 


202 


t-er  or  other  mileage  recording  device,  complete 
and  detailed  results  may  be  thus  obtained  by 
means  of  such  a meter. 

The  ampere-hour  meters  are  constructed  in  two 
general  types  known  as  the  self-contained  meter 
and  the  distant  dial  meter.  The  first  named  is 
manufactured  in  three  styles,  called  the  Auto  type, 
the  Service  type  and  Extension  Back  type.  Elec- 
trically all  three  of  these  are  identical,  the  differ- 


Fig.  90 — Distant  Dial  Mechanism. 


ences  being  only  in  the  arrangement  of  the  base 
casting  upon  which  they  are  mounted  and  the  spe- 
cial way  in  which  the  leads  are  brought  into  the 
meter. 

The  Auto  type  is  supported  upon  an  aluminum 
base  and  is  intended  for  location  in  passenger  ve- 
hicles in  position  for  easy  reading. 

The  Service  type  is  slightly  larger  than  the  Auto 


203 


type  and  is  mounted  upon  a solid  cast  iron  base 
with  lugs  for  external  line  connections. 

The  Extension  Back  type,  is  contained  in  a pair 
of  aluminum  castings  so  arranged  that  the  meter 
is  supported  by  lugs  at  the  front,  allowing  the  dial, 
with  friction  tight  bezel  ring  and  cap  only,  to  pro- 
trude through  the  heel  or  dashboard. 


Fig.  91 — Distant  Dial  Type  Ampere-Hour  Meter  and  Contact 
Train,  Cover  Removed. 


In  some  cases  it  is  not  convenient  to  place  the 
meter,  in  the  forms  described  above,  in  the  most 
suitable  location  in  the  car  body  on  account  of  the 
space  it  would  occupy  and  the  heavy  wires  leading 
to  it.  To  meet  this  demand  the  manufacturers 
supply  a meter  of  the  Distant  Dial  type.  This  ar- 
rangement allows  the  meter  proper  to  be  placed  out 
of  the  way,  as  beneath  the  seat  or  supported  on 
the  chassis.  The  dial  mechanism  may  then  be  lo- 


204 


cated  within  the  body  of  the  vehicle  at  the  most 
convenient  spot.  This  dial  inechanisni  is  furnished 
in  the  flush  or  projecting-  tyj)C  as  shown,  90. 

OPERATION  OF  CONTACT  MECHANISM 
AND  DISTANT  DIAL. 

Instead  of  the  recording  mechanism  as  de- 
scribed for  the  standard  meter,  in  which  the 
shaft  drives  a hand,  a contact  train,  h'ig.  91,  is 


Fig.  92 — Ammeter  and  Distant  Dial  Mechanism. 


provided  which  closes  a contact  to  the  distant  dial 
mechanism  at  equal  intervals  of  ampere-hours 
measured  by  the  meter.  The  dial  mechanism  con- 
sists of  two  electro-magnets  facing  each  other,  and 
provided  with  a lever  free  to  rock  between  them. 
The  energizing  of  one  of  these  attracts  the  lever 
on  charge,  the  motion  thus  imparted  advancing 
the  hand  one  division  on  the  dial  toward  the  zero 
point.  During  discharge  a similar  series  of  im- 


205 


pulses  through  the  other  electro-magnet  change  the 
position  of  the  dial  hand  in  the  opposite  direction 
from  that  travelled  during  charge.  Should  the 
leads  connecting  the  contact-making  mechanism 
with  the  dial  mechanism  be  broken,  the  meter  prop- 
er would  not  be  afifected,  as  the  rotation  will  con- 
tinue, the  driving  wheel  of  the  contact  train  simply 
escaping  past  the  bar  operating  the  contact  in  either 
direction. 

The  zero  contact  feature  is  provided  in  the  dis- 
tant dial  type  as  well  as  the  standard  type  of  meter, 
so  that  an  auxiliary  circuit  breaker  may  be  oper- 
ated, opening  the  charging  circuit. 

Leads  and  cables  connecting  the  meter  and  dial 
to  the  charge  and  discharge  circuits  are  furnished 
in  distinct  colors  so  that,  with  the  diagrams,  the 
proper  connections  may  be  readily  effected  with 
small  opportunity  of  error. 

Ammeter  and  Distant  Dial.  Since  the  intro 
duction  of  the  distant  dial  type  of  ampere-hour 
meter,  the  suggestion  was  made  that  the  scales  of 
all  the  electrical  instruments  carried  on  the  vehicle, 
such  as  voltmeter,  ammeter  and  ampere-hour  meter, 
be  combined  in  one  case.  This  may  be  readily  ac- 
complished. A recent  design,  illustrated  in  Fig 
8i,  shows  the  distant  dial  and  ammeter  scales. 

Compensated  Meter  for  Lead  Batteries.  As 
explained  in  Chapter  III.,  it  is  characteristic  of 
lead  batteries  that  the  discharge  capacity  in  am- 
pere-hours varies  with  the  discharge  rate,  the  high- 
er the  latter  the  lower  the  capacity.  For  instance 


206 


if  the  normal  rate  of  a particular  battery  is  27  am- 
peres for  5 hours  the  capacity  being  135  ampere- 
hours,  then  at  three  times  the  normal  rate  experi 
ment  shows  the  capacity  to  be  only  90  ampere- 
hours.  In  such  an  instance  45  ampere-hours  would 
be  lost,  ostensibly,  but  such  is  not  the  case  as  in 
practice  such  an  extremely  high  rate  is  not  main- 
tained for  but  very  short  periods,  except  under  the 
most  unusual  circumstances.  In  going  through 
sandy  or  heavy  roads  or  climbing  long  hills  the 
current  draw  will  be  considerably  increased  and  the 
capacity  thus  reduced.  However,  this  is  partly 
offset  in  practice  by  the  short  periods  for  which 
these  overloads  are  borne  and  the  ability  of  the 
battery  to  recuperate. 

In  the  compensating  type  meters  designed  to  pro- 
vide for  abnormal  rates  of  discharge,  the  speed  of 
the  meter  is  automatically  increased,  and  so  com- 
pensates for  the  condition  explained  above. 

SMALL  AMPERE  HOUR  METERS 

The  “MS’"  meter  is  similar  in  all  respects  to  the 
Sangamo  standard  D-5  ampere-hour  meters,  except 
that  it  is  much  smaller  in  size.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  meter  is  shown  on  page  208,  figure  93. 
It  is  so  small  that  it  can  be  conveniently  held  in 
the  hand  and  can  be  installed  on  the  dash-board 
of  an  electric  vehicle  or  gasoline  car,  as  it  occupies 
no  more  space  than  a clock  or  speedometer.  It 
weighs  less  than  five  pounds. 

The  Type  ''MS''  meter  is  made  with  two  styles 
of  dial — the  circular  ampere-hour  dial  and  a com- 
bination ampere-hour  and  ampere  dial.  The,  former 


207 


is  simply  a regular  Sangamo  ampere-hour  meter 
circular  dial,  shown  on  page  208,  figure,  93,  while 
the  latter  is  a circular  dial  having  an  ampere-hour 
scale  that  extends  a little  less  than  two-thirds  around 
the  upper  part  and  the  circular  scale  near  the  bot- 
tom, shown  on  page  209,  figure  94.  The  internal 
construction  of  these  two  meters  is  exactly  the  same 


Type  93^ — Type  “MS”  Ampere-hour  Meter. 


except  that  the  latter  is  equipped  with  a current 
indicator. 

The  ‘"MS”  meters  have  been  especially  designed 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  small  storage  battery 
installations  such  as  are  used  in  isolated  lighting 
plants  or  in  connection  with  the  ignition  and  light- 


in^  systems  of  gasoline  automobiles,  motor  boats, 
etc.;  also  for  use  on  electric  vehicles.  They  are  not 
injured  by  the  severe  shocks  and  jars  incident  to 
operation  in  automobiles. 


Fig.  94 — Type  “MS”  Ampere-hour  Meter  with  Details. 


The  plain  circular  dial  type  meter  is  intended  for 
electric  vehicles  where  separate  ammeters  are  ah 
ready  available  for  measuring  the  current.  This 
type,  meter  is  reguarly  furnished  with  a red  hand 
stamped  with  the  word  ''Empty’'  and  this  can  be 
set  at  any  desired  point  as  a guide  to  the  user.  It  is 
also  furnished  with  an  insulated  contact  at  zero,  or 
full  charge  point,  which  is  closed  by  a platinum  tip 


209 


on  the  indicating  hand,  thus  operating  a circuit 
breaker  or  signal  device,  when  the  battery  is  fully 
charged.  Contact  points  may  be  located  at  any  posi- 
tion on  the  dial  to  operate  signals  or  relays  at  certain 
points  in  the  discharge  of  the  battery. 


Fig.  95 — Circuit  Breaker. 


Like  larger  meters,  it  is  arranged  for  automatic 
overcharging  of  the  battery,  and  the  desired  per- 
centage of  over-charge  can  be  set  by  means  of  a 
lever  which  moves  over  a scale  at  the  base  of  the 
meter,  as  shown  on  page  209.  Where  desired,  the 
regular  type  ampere-hour  meter  without  the 

current  indicator  may  be  equipped  with  the  com- 


210 


pensating  device  which  makes  allowances  for  loss 
of  capacity  for  high  discharge  rates. 

Installation  and  Connections.  The  ampere- 
hour  meters,  as  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  are 
complete,  ready  for  installation,  which  is  a com 
paratively  simple  matter  requiring  only  the  placing 
of  the  instrument  in  a convenient  location  where  it 
may  be  easily  visible,  accessible  for  adjustment  and 
resetting,  and  convenient  for  the  wiring.  When 
placed  upon  a dashboard  which  is  inclined,  the 
meter  .should  be  blocked  so  that  the  disc  will  ro 


Fig.  96 — Circuit  Diagram  of  Charge-Stopping  Device.  . Sangamo 
Ampere-hour  Meter. 

tate  in  a horizontal  plane.  If  possible  it  is  pre 
ferable  to  place  the  meter  beneath  the  seat  in  ordei 
that  it  may  be  protected  from  the  weather  and  the 
feet  of  the  driver. 

The  wiring  scheme  is  shown  in  Figs.  g6  and  97 
which  illustrates  the  method  of  connecting  the 


211 


charging  plug,  controller,  battery  and  circuit  break- 
er, Fig.  95,  with  the  meter. 

This  diagram  of  connections,  with  modifications 
depending  upon  special  wiring  of  the  different 
makes  of  cars,  can  be  generally  applied.  Care  must 
be  used  in  making  the  connection  when  the  bat- 
tery is  divided  for  parallel  operation  during  part 


of  the  time  and  operating  in  series  on  the  higher 
speeds.  When  the  cells  are  connected  in  parallel 
during  discharge  then  the  current  from  one  branch 
only  should  pass  through  the  meter  and  not  the 
total  current  to  the  motor,  because  an  erroneous 
reading  would  be  thus  obtained.  For  charging,  of 
course  the  battery  is  connected  in  series,  and  all 
of  the  current  passes  through  the  meter  in  the 


212 


same  mannef  as  wjien  the  cells  are  all  in  series  on 
discharge. 

Inspection  of  all  parts  of  the  vehicle  is  neces- 
sary and  the  ampere-hour  meter  should  not  be  neg- 
lected as  it  is  very  necessary  to  maintain  all  of  the 
bolts,  nuts,  screws  and  contacts  firm  and  secure  so 
that  loose  contacts  may  not  develop,  causing  heating 
or  even  burning  of  terminals.  When  new  it  would 
be  well  to  go  over  the  nuts  and  screws  every  two 
or  three  weeks,  tightening  the  connections  if  neces- 
sary and  thereafter  approximately  every  month  or 
two.  When  doing  this  the  battery  contacts,  in  fact 
all  the  electrical  leads  or  wires,  should  be  inspected 
to  see  that  good  contact  is  made  and  that  the  joint 
is  secure. 

Should  damage  of  more  than  very  slight  nature 
be  imposed  upon  the  meter,  it  is  preferable  to  re- 
move it  from  the  vehicle  and  return  it  to  the  manu- 
facturer or  competent  instrument  maker  for  re- 
pairs, rather  than  to  submit  it  to  the  tampering  of 
an  inexperienced  repair  man. 

Maximum  Demand  Indicator.  In  some  com- 
munities the  cost  of  electricity  is  based  upon  two 
items,  the  first  being  a charge  for  the  readiness  to 
serve,  taking  into  account  the  highest  point  of  de- 
mand during  a predetermined  period ; the  second 
takes  notice  only  of  the  total  amount  consumed  in 
the  time  indicated.  The  monthly  consumption  is 
measured  by  a watt-hour  meter,  while  the  maxi- 
mum demand  is  derived  by  taking  either  a percent- 
age of  the  total  connected  load  of  the  installation, 


213 


by  the  use  of  a Demand  Indicatpr,  or,  in  the  case 
of  very  large  consumers,  by  measurement  of  the 
maximum  load. 


Fig.  98 — Maximum  Demand  Indicator. 

There  are  a variety  of  instruments  used  for  the 
large  installations  but  the  recording  of  the  maxi- 


214 


mum  values  of  current  for  the  smaller  consumers 
is  done  by  the  indicators  illustrated  in  Fi^s.  98, 
99  and  100.  In  the  Demand  Indicator  shown  in 
Fig.  98,  the  flow  of  current  in  the  circuit  for  a 
period  of  five  minutes  or  more  will  cause  the 
liquid  in  the  index  tube  of  this  instrument  to-  rise 
to  a point  opposite  the  scale  of  current.  The 
liquid  will  remain  at  that  point  until  it  either  is 


Fig.  99 — Maximum  Demand  Indicator  Attached  to  Watt-Hour 

Meter. 

raised  by  the  recording  of  a higher  value  of  cur- 
rent or  is  reset. 

Resetting  is  accomplished  by  tilting,  allowing  the 
liquid  to  return  to  the  main  liquid  chambers.  Fre- 
quently there  are  two  scales,  one  of  current  in  am- 
peres and  the  other  calibrated  in  kilowatt  hours  for 
the  potential  of  the  circuit,  as  115  or  230  volts.  In 
this  manner  the  electricity  meter  and  the  Demand 
Indicator  may  be  quickly  read  and  reset  by  the  au- 

215 


thorized  meter  reader  and  readily  checked  by  the 
consumer. 

The  instrument  shown  in  Fig.  loo  is  designed  for 
use  with  a watt-h’our  meter,  and  prints  on  a tape 
the  watt-hour  consumption  during  the  small  time 
intervals  also  printed  in  adjacent  position  on  the 
tape.  This  indicator  may  be  used  for  either  direct 
current  or  alternating  current  circuits. 


Fig.  100 — Printing  Attachment  for  Watt-Hour  Meters. 


The  device  illustrated  in  Fig.  99  takes  the,  place 
of  the  watt-hour  meter  register,  and  also  includes 
a large  hand  which  indicates  the  maximum  watt- 
hour  consumption  during  half  hour  intervals.  The 
mechanism  is  arranged  so'  that,  if  the  rate  of  con- 
sumption be  less  during  succeeding  intervals,  the 
reading  of  the  hand  will  not  be  altered,  but  if  the 
rate  at  which  the  energy  passing  through  the  meter 
increases,  then  the  hand  will  be  moved  to  a posi- 


210 


tion  of  greater  demand.  This  device  is  applicable 
only  to  alternating  current  circuits,  but  modifica- 
tions are  provided  so  that  the  same  principle  may 
be  used  with  direct  current  installations. 

Watt-Hour  Meter.  The  watt-hour  meter  rec- 
ords the  electric  power  consumption,  taking  ac- 
count of  the  current,  the  length  of  time  for  which 
it  is  used  and  the  pressure  or  voltage  at  which  it  is 
supplied.  The  meter  used  for  the  purpose  of  meas- 
uring the  electricity  supplied  in  charging  a storage 
battery  does  not  differ  from  those  installed  for  re- 
cording the  consumption  of  light  or  power  in  fac- 
tories or  residences. 

The  external  form  of  these  meters  is  no  doubt 
familiar  to  all.  The  internal  construction,  while 
interesting,  cannot  be  explained  within  the  scope 
of  this  book,  but  the  readings  of  the  dials  deserve 
consideration  at  this  point  so  that  the  methods  of 
arriving  at  the  cost  of  current  may  be  understood. 

The  dials  shown  in  Figs.  loi  and  102  illustrate 
die  meter  readings.  After  noting  the  direction  in 
which  the  pointers  are  moving,  read  the  number  on 
the  dial  that  has  been  passed  by  the  pointer,  that  is, 
the  lower  number.  If  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  pointer  has  passed  the  number  or  not,  inspec- 
tion of  the  next  lower  dial  will  determine.  If  the 
hand  on  it  has  started  on  a new  revolution,  then 
the  pointer  on  the  first  dial  has  passed  the  doubt- 
ful number.  The  readings  are  recorded  in  kilo- 
watt-hours, and  the  difference  between  two  read- 
ings  gives  the  number  of  kilowatt-hours  consumed 
in  the  period  intervening. 


217 


The  cost  of  current  for  battery  charging  varies 
considerably  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  de- 
pending upon  the  number  of  vehicles  charged  regu- 
larly, whether  they  are  all  charged  at  one  time 


P'ig.  101 — Reading  9499  Kilowatt  Hours. 


Fig.  102— Reading  1,188,900  Watt  Hours. 


or  consecutively  in  sets,  and  also  naturally  upon  the 
cost  of  producing  and  distributing  electrical  energy 
in  the  particular  district.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  vehicles  are  charged  during  the  night  when  the 
residence  and  industrial  loads  are  light,  special  rates 


218 


are  usually  extended  in  favor  of  this  class  of  cus- 
tomers. Fortunately,  this  is  profitable  both  to  the 
central  stations  and  the  vehicles  owners,  since  it 
provides  off-peak  load  for  the  former  and  lower 
rates  for  the  latter.  The  peak  load  refers  to  the 
periods  of  greatest  demand  on  the  power  stations. 

Remarks  on  the  installation  and  maintenance  of 
watt-hour  meters  are  unnecessary  in  this  connec- 


Fig.  103 — Hub  Odometer.  Fig.  104 — Centrifugal  Speedometer. 


tion  since  they  are  installed  and  inspected  periodi- 
cally by  the  central  station  companies,  excepting 
in  such  public  garage  installations  as  desire  more 
detailed  records  for  their  own  information.  In 
such  cases,  arrangements  can  be  made  for  com- 
petent supervision. 

Mileage  and  Speed  Indicators.  In  the  operation 
of  motor  vehicles  it  is  usually  not  only  convenient 
and  advisable,  but  very  often  necessary,  to  know 
the  speed  and  distance  characteristics  of  the  ve- 
hicle. In  the  measurement  of  distance  and  speed, 
including  the  variation  of  the  latter,  many  devices 
are  used  and  they  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 


219 


namely,  those  which  give  the  instantaneous  read 
ings  of  speed  and  those  which  record  its  varia- 
tions over  a predetermined  period. 

Fundamental  quantities  involved  are  time  and 
distance.  Time  is  measured  by  a clockwork  of  the 
familiar  type,  while  distance  alone  is  measured  by 


Fig.  105 — Tachodometer. 


a type  of  odometer.  The  odometer  is  usually 
geared  directly  to  one  of  the  forward  wheels  of 
the  vehicle  although,  when  combined  with  a speedo- 
meter, the  device  is  generally  placed  within  the  car 
or  upon  the  dashboard  for  easy  reading  and  actu- 
ated by  a flexible  shaft  from  the  wheel.  The  sim- 


220 


plest  type  of  odometer  is  that  which  is  placed  upon 
the  wheel  itself,  Fig.  103,  and  consists  of  several 
small  toothed  wheels  and  a recording  train  show- 
ing the  actual  mileage  for  the  size  of  wheel  to 
which  it  is  geared. 

The  speedometers  are  of  four  general  classes, 
the  centrifugal,  hydraulic,  magnetic  and  electric. 

The  centrifugal  speedometers  are  among  the  most 
widely  used  and  depend  upon  the  action  of  a re- 
volving weight  against  a spring,  Fig.  104.  The 
greater  the  speed  of  rotation  of  the  weight,  the 
more  intense  is  its  effect  upon  the  stationary  spring, 
so  that  a pointer  attached  to  the  latter  will  be  re- 
volved over  a graduated  scale  or  dial  face.  Any 
changes  in  speed  are  quickly  taken  up  by  the  sensi- 
tive instrument  and  indicated  by  the  pointer. 

The  hydraulic  speedometer  consists  in  the  use 
of  a liquid,  such  as  oil,  in  a tube  or  chamber  con- 
taining a small  paddle  wheel.  The  flexible  shaft 
from  the  road  wheel  is  geared  to  this  small  paddle 
wheel,  which  sets  the  oil  in  motion,  propelling  it 
to  a height  in  the  tube  proportional  to  the  speed 
of  the  paddle,  that  is,  to  the  speed  of  the  car.  The 
illustration.  Fig.  105,  shows  this  instrument  ready 
for  installation. 

The  magnetic  speedometers.  Fig.  106,  are  also 
very  extensively  used.  They  depend  upon  the  mag- 
netic attraction  between  a revolved  magnetic  core 
and  an  attracted  aluminum  cup  carrying  the  indi- 
cated speed  digits.  The  attraction  between  these 
two,  balanced  against  a spring  of  special  temper, 


221 


makes  the  indication  in  the  window  of  the  instru- 
ment, at  which  the  numbers  appear,  dependent  upon 
the  speed  of  the  flexible  shaft  or,  in  other  words, 
upon  the  speed  of  the  cai. 

When  it  is  required  to  record  mileage  as  well 
as  to  indicate  the  speed,  a small  recording  train 
is  also  actuated  by  the  flexible  shaft  within  the 
speedometer  case. 


Fig.  106 — Magnetic  Speedometer. 


The  electric  speedometer  or  tachometer  consists 
of  a small  electric  generator  driven  from  the  wheel 
of  the  vehicle  and  connected  by  two  thin  wires  or 
leads  to  the  indicating  instrument,  which  may  be 
located  in  a convenient  part  of  the  car.  The  indi- 
cating instrument  is  in  reality  a voltmeter  cali- 
brated, that  is,  its  scale  is  graduated  in  miles  per 
hour  instead  of  volts.  Ordinarily  this  type  of  in- 


222 


strument  is  very  little  used  in  vehicle  application 
and  does  not  include  a mileage  recording  device. 

Frequently  it  is  very  convenient  and  advisable 
to  know  the  exact  slope  or  grade  of  a hill,  and  for 
that  reason  an  instrument,  known  as  a gradometer, 
may  be  attached  to  the  car  or  secured  as  a unit  with 


Fig.  107 — Recording  Speedometer. 


some  makes  of  speedometers.  This  gradometer  is 
simply  a liquid  in  a tube  with  a scale  marked  in 
per  cent,  grade.  It  is  very  similar  to.  the  carpen- 
ter’s level  in  which  the  bubble  under  the  centre 
mark  shows  that  the  work  is  true. 

The  devices  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs are  very  extensively  used,  both  on  com- 
mercial and  passenger  vehicles,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  there  is  a negligible  per  cent,  of  the  total  num- 
ber of  vehicles  in  use  which  are  not  equipped  with 
one  or  more  of  these  instruments. 


223 


Meters  which  give  a permanent  record  of  the 
travelling  time,  standing  time,  etc.,  of  vehicles  are 
important  especially  in  commercial  service  where  it 
is  highly  desirable  that  the  most  efifective  work  pos- 
sible shall  be  obtained  from  the  trucking  equipment. 
These  instruments  are,  as  yet,  not  so  widely  used 
as  their  importance  would  warrant,  but  owners  of 
commercial  vehicles  are  increasingly  recognizing 
the  value  of  using  travel  recording  instruments  upon 
their  trucks.  From  records  made  by  such  instru- 
ments, it  is  possible  for  the  delivery  superintendent 
or  supervisor  of  the  vehicle  service  to  inspect  the 
movements  of  all  the  trucks  throughout  each  day, 
and  to  plan  or  devise  methods  for  increasing  their 
efficiency,  either  by  changing  the  loading,  the  driv- 
ers or  rearranging  the  routing.  In  many  cases,  very 
complete  records  of  this  nature  would  leave  nothing 
to  be  desired  toward  increased  efficiency,  but  such 
records  could  only  be  assured,  without  the  use  of 
travel  recording  instruments,  by  the  continuous 
services  of  trained  -and  skillful  observers  to  ascer- 
tain the  details. 

' Aside  from  the  value  of  the  travel  record  as  an 
index  of  a truck's  performance,  the  moral  effect 
exerted  upon  the  driver,  through  the  automatic  re- 
cording of  all  delays  of  his  truck,  is  very  consider- 
able, and  cannot  fail  but  impel  him  to  use  his  time 
to  the  best  advantage. 

Several  recording  instruments  of  this  class  are 
operated  through  flexible  shafts.  One  of  these  is 
shown  in  Fig.  107.  The  driving  gear  on  this  type 


224 


is  attached  to  one  of  the  wheels  of  the  truck.  The 
instruments  proper  are  so  protected  in  their  cases 
that  practically  no  attention  is  necessary.  The  ex- 
posed wearing  parts  should  be  inspected  frequently, 
and  kept  free  from  mud,  and  oiled  or  greased  mod- 
erately. 


The  recorder  shown  in  Fig.  io8  is  unique  in  that 
it  has  no  outside  shaft  connecting  it  to  the  vehicle 
wheel.  It  is  a self-contained  instrument  and  is 
operated  on  the  well  known  principle  of  the  pendu- 
lum, the  ever-present  oscillations  caused  by  the  side 
thrust  of  the  vehicle  when  in  motion  being  the  basis 


Fig.  108 — The  Service  Recorder. 


225 


of  a record  on  the  time  chart.  Ordinary  vibration 
or  jar  of  the  vehicle,  are  not  recorded.  The  makers 
lay  considerable  emphasis  upon  the  lack  of  a flexible 
shaft  connection,  pointing  out  that  such  devices  are 
easily  damaged  by  any  sort  of  malicious  interfer- 
ence, and  that  they  are.  more  liable  to  breakage  than 
a self-contained  instrument  having  no  outside  gear 
connections  of  any  kind. 

A form  of  recording  device  which  is  very  widely 
and  popularly  known  in  the  large  cities  is  the  taxi- 
meter, which  is  a form  of  travel  recorder  arranged 
to  show  its  record  in  Dollars  and  Cents  as  well  as 
in  miles.  These  devices  are  well  known  and  need  no 
particular  comment  here. 


22t 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

WHEELS,  RIMS  AND  TIRES;  THEIR  CARE. 

The  subject  matter  dealing  with  the  very  im- 
portant parts  of  the  automobile  designated  by  the 
names  of  wheel,  rim  and  tire  might  well  occupy 
a complete  volume.  In  fact,  several  volumes  would 
not  be  sure  to  do  the  subject  justice.  For  the  pur- 


poses of  this  book  it  will  be  considered  sufficient 
if  the  principles  are  explained  and  the  points,  which 
make  for  the  most  satisfactory  service,  emphasized. 
This  subject  has  received  considerable  attention 
since  the  advent  of  the  gasoline  motor  car  and  it 
probably  will  serve  our  purpose  best  if  the  features 


most  characteristic  of  electric  vehicle  practice  are 
brought  forward. 

The  wooden  artillery  wheel  shown  in  Fig.  109  is 
practically  universally  used  on  all  motor  vehicles. 
The  artillery  wheel  is  very  satisfactory  inasmuch 
as  the  second  growth  hickory  used  in  its  construc- 
tion combines  the  features  of  strength  and  resist- 
ance to  shocks  with  light  weight. 


In  the  past  few  years  the  reduction  in  the  supply 
of  first-class  wood  has  made  the  introduction  of 
the  wire  wheel  more  rapid,  especially  in  Europe 
where  the  scarcity  is  more  pronounced  than  in  this 
country.  Wire  wheels  (Fig.  no)  are  lighter  than 
wooden  wheels  and  the  claim  is  made  that  they 
permit  greater  tire  life  by  rapidl)'’  radiating  the 
heat  generated  by  tire  friction.  Inasmuch  as  the 
rim  of  a wire  wheel  is  lighter  than  the  felloe  and 


Fig.  110 — Wire  Wheel. 


Fig.  Ill — Metal  Wheel. 


228 


rim  of  the  artillery  wheel  there  is  less  flywheel  ef- 
fect and  starting  and  stopping  may  be  accomplished 


Fig.  112 — Demountable  Rim. 


Fig.  113 — Quick  Detachable  Rim,  Clincher  type. 


with  less  time  and  energy.  An  essential  difference 
between  wire  and  wood  wheels  is  in  the  manner  in 


229 


which  the  load  is  carried.  In  the  wooden  wheel 
the  weight  is  carried  by  the  spokes  in  the  lower 
half  of  the  wheel,  while  in  the  wire  wheel  the  hub 
and  housing  is  suspended  from  the  upper  half  of 
the  rim  by  the  spokes  in  tension.  For  this  reason 


Fig.  114 — Q.  T).  Rim,  Straight  Side  Type. 


it  is  said  that  shocks  are  absorbed  more  readily  and 
that  greater  life  may  be  secured  horn  tires. 

Metal  wheels  (Fig.  m)  formed  by  the  use  of 
two  steel  discs,  suitably  held  by  the  hub  and  rim, 
are  being  used  in  trucking  service  for  special  pur- 
poses, such  as  enclosing  motors  or  gearing  in  the 
wheel  proper.  The  manufacturers  claim  strength 
and  resistance  to  side-thrusts  combined  with  light- 
ness as  their  features  and  practice  appears  to  verify 
the  statements. 

Rims.  The  rim  is  essentially  a steel  band  de- 
signed to  rigidly  hold  the  tire  and  permit  of  its 
ready  application  or  removal.  The  rim  either  en- 


230 


circles  the  wheel  felloe  or  is  secured  to  a band 
which  does.  If  the  felloe  band  and  rim  are  sepa- 
rate then  it  is  said  to  be  a demountable  rim  (Fig. 
M2.  A locking  device,  of  screws,  bolts  or  clamps, 


Fig.  115 — Goodrich  Silvertown  Cord  Tire. 

(For  description  See  page  238) 

designed  to  hold  the  rim  rigidly  in  position  yet  easy 
of  removal,  is  a necessary  part  of  a demountable 
rim. 

The  shape  of  the  rim  section  as  shown  in  (Fig. 
1 13)  determines  the  type  of  tire  to  be  used.  For 
pneumatic  tires  the  rims  are  known  as  (A)  clincher 


231 


or  (B)  straight  side.  These  names  are  descriptive 
of  the  method  employed  in  securing  the  tire  to  the 
rim.  The  hooks  of  the  clincher  rim  engage  with 
the  hooked  beads  of  the  clincher  tire  so  that  when, 
inflated  there  is  small  possibility  of  the  tire  coming 
oflf.  In  fact,  the  trouble,  is,  that  when  the  tire  has 
been  on  for  a length  of  time  and  is  firmly  seated 
by  rusting  or  otherwise,  there  is  difficulty  in  re- 


Fig.  116 — Goodrich  Tire  Caliper. 
(For  description  See  page  239) 


moving  it  for  repair  or  renewal.  To  obviate  this 
difficulty,  which  is  most  marked  with  the  larger 
sizes  of  tires,  the  outside  hook  flange  is  made  as  a 
removable  ring  held  in  place  by  a locking  ring.  This 
construction  is  known  as  a quick  detachable  rim. 
Instead  of  the  clincher  tire,  a straight  side  tire  is 
often  used  so  that  instead  of  the  hooks  of  the  re- 
movable ring  being  curved  inward  as  with  the 
clincher  tire,  they  are  reversed,  curving  outward. 


232 


Many  of  the  dimensions  of  the  wheels  and  rims 
most  commonly  used  have  been  standardized  by 
the  Society  of  Automobile  Engineers,  so  that  tires 
of  any  make  whatsoever  may  be  used  interchange- 
ably on  a standard  dimension  wheel. 

Rubber  tires  may  be  readily  classified  as 
pneumatic,  cushion  and  solid.  As  the  use  of 
wood  and  steel  tires  are  not  recommended  for 
electric  vehicle  service,  except  trailers,  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  will  be  confined  to  the  construction 
and  care  of  rubber  tires. 

The  pneumatic  tire  is  a combination  of  rubbei 
compound  and  cotton  fabric,  so  proportioned  and 
interwoven  that  the  complete  unit  may  not  only  con- 
fine the  air  for  cushioning  but  also  withstand  the 
wear  and  tear  of  hard  use.  Resiliency  makes  de- 
mands which  cannot  wholly  be  satisfied  if  endur- 
ance is  kept  in  mind  so  that,  a compromise  must  be 
effected  giving  the  required  cushioning  with  the 
least  sacrifice  of  durability. 

The  . modern  efficient  electric  vehicle  has  been 
developed  from  the  earliest  type,  net  by  radical 
changes,  but  by  the  refinement  of  the  parts ; by  the 
reduction  of  waste  power  to  a minimum.  At  first, 
tires  were  used  which  had  satisfactory  wearing 
qualities,  but  being  hard,  made  it  necessary  to  lift 
the  weight  of  the  car  over  every  obstruction  and 
out  of  every  small  crevice.  As  this  took  energy, 
means  were  found  to  design  a tire  which  absorbed 
these  inequalities  of  road  surface  of  its  own  ac- 
cord. The  battery,  therefore,  having  a definite  ca- 


233 


pacity,  could  utilize  it  to  propelling  the  vehicle 
forward  instead  of  lifting  it  over  thousands  of 
small  obstructions.  This  improvement  is  specifical- 
ly due  to  the  use  of  more  elastic  compound  and  a 
different  weave  of  fabric.  At  first  strength  was 
sacrificed  for  this  efficiency  but  today  after  years 
of  experiments  and  steady  service,  tires  are  giving 
not  only  efficient  mileage  per  charge  of  battery  but 
also  long  life. 


Fig.  117 — Cross-section,  Indicating  Parts  of  Tire. 


This  point  is  important,  and  although  lower  first 
cost  may  seem  to  justify  the  use  of  less  efficient 
tires,  a moment’s  thought  should  be  sufficient  to 
emphasize  the  additive  loss  during  months,  result- 
ing from  their  use.  In  the  case  of  the  gasoline 
motor  vehicle  this  refinement  in  tires  is  not  so  neces- 
sary since  the  continued  supply  of  energy  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  gasoline  tank.  With  the  elec- 
tric;  however,  the  charge  in  the  battery  is  fixed  and 


m 


it  is  not  a matter  of  liow  much  more  gasoline,  but 
what  reduction  in  mileage.  The  question  of  tire 
efficiency  applies  to  cushion  and  solid  rubber  tires 
as  well  as  to  pneumatic  tires. 

The  essential  parts  of  the  pneumatic  tire  are 
shown  in  (Fig.  117)  illustrating  the  regular  clinch- 
er type.  The  parts  are  known  as  tread,  breaker 
strip,  side  walls,  cushion,  fabric  and  bead  and  meet 
the  following  uses. 

The  tread  is  the  portion  of  rubber  compound 
which  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  road  surface 
and  of  all  parts  is  most  subject  to  wear.  It  must 
resist  wear  due  to  the  weight  of  the  vehicle  and  in 
the  case  of  rear  tires,  due  also  to  the  strain  of 
traction.  On  good  smooth  roads  this  is  not  exces- 
sive but  becomes  quite  a feature  in  slippery  places 
where  the  wheels  may  slip  and  spin,  bringing  gashes 
and  cuts  into  the  material.  While  it  is  advisable 
to  have  the  tread  thick  from  the  standpoint  of  good 
wearing  qualities,  resiliency  and  weight  are  items 
which  must  be  couv^idered  in  the  choice  for  most 
efficient  results.  Careful  study  and  exhaustive  ex- 
periments have  lead  the  manufacturers  to  their 
conclusions  in  the  production  of  a suitable  tread. 

The  breaker  strip  immediately  beneath  the  tread 
is  used  to  receive  and  distribute  the  force  of  the 
shocks  over  a wider  surface.  It,  as  well  as  the 
other  fabric  parts  of  the  tire,  is  made  of  specially 
treated  cotton.  The  walls  on  the  side  of  the  tire 
are  made  of  alternate  layers  of  fabric  and  rubber 
so  that  sufficient  strength  will  be  given  to  resist 


235 


the  bursting  stress  of  the  air  within  and  yet  be 
sufificiently  resilient  to  do  the  greater  part  of 
stretching  in  the  operation  of  rolling.  The  cushion 
shown  between  the  breaker  strip  and  inner  fabric 


Fig.  118 — Cross-section  of  Truck  Tire. 


Fig.  118A — Solid  Tire,  Demountable. 


is  of  very  resilient  rubber  and  is  an  additional  fac- 
tor in  shock  absorption.  The  fabric  is  usually 
made  of  what  is  known  as  combed  Sea  Island  cot- 
ton 'Trictioned’’  or  pressed  between  and  impreg- 
nated with  fine  Para  rubber.  The  fabric  gives  the 


236 


strength  to  the  tire,  is  protected  and  the  layers 
combined  into  a unit  by  means  of  the  rubber.  Dur- 
ing the  building  up  process,  when  layer  after  layer 


Fig.  119 — Pressed-on-Type,  Dual  Tire. 


is  added,  the  parts  are  formed  gradually  into  a 
finished  unit  by  the  ''curing’’  or  heating  process 


Fig.  120 — Demountable  Wireless  Tires. 


and  finally  the  completed  tire  is  vulcanized  into 
finished  shape. 

The  bead  is  made  of  fabric  saturated  with  rub- 


237 


ber  and  pressed  into  the  desired  shape.  It  may 
contain  material  such  as  sted  wires  or  hardened 
rubber  in  order  that  it  may  be  firmly  secured  to  the 
rim  when  inflated  and  yet  be  readily  removed  for 
repair  or  removal. 

GOODRICH  SILVERTOWN  CORD  TIRES. 

A number  of  years  ago  a discovery  was  made  in 
Silvertown,  England,  which  has  had  a pronounced 
effect  upon  the  successful  operation  of  electric  vehi- 
cles in  this  country.  It  was  a new  method  of  manu- 
facturing pneumatic  tires  by  supplanting  fabric  with 
heavy  cabled  cords  made  from  sea-island  cotton, 
and  sole  American  rights  to  the  manufacture  of  this 
type  of  tire  were,  secured  shortly  after  by  The  B. 
F.  Goodrich  Company. 

After  a number  of  years  of  development  which 
were  necessary  to  fit  the  tire  for  use  on  American 
roads  the  new  justly-famous  Goodrich  Silvertown 
Cord  Tire,  was  placed  upon  the  market. 

While  this  tire  has  been'  very  largely  used  on 
gasoline  cars,  it  may  be  regarded  as  a tire  type  par- 
ticularly fitted  for  use  on  electrics. 

Two  rows  of  cabled  cords,  each  thoroughly  im- 
pregnated with  rubber,  driven  in  under  terrific  pres- 
sure form  the  carcass  or  foundation  of  the  tire. 

The  advantages  which  the  cord  construction  has 
over  the  fabric  tire  are  far  greater  than  would  be 
supposed  by  anyone  who  had  not  given  the  matter 
consideration.  The  cords  seem  to  have  greater 
vitality  and  strength,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be 
more  pliable  and  resilient  so  that  the  tire  not  only 


23S 


gives  long  mileage,  hut  increased  the  radius  of  car 
activity  per  battery  charge  as  high  as  25%. 

1'he  tires  ahsorh  unevenness  of  the  road  surface, 
it  is  not  necessary  for  the  battery  to  push  the  car 
up  and  over  obstructions;  it  is  possible  to  develop 
greater  speed,  start  quicker,  coast  farther  and  steer 
easier. 

GOODRICH  TIRE  CALIPER. 

Over-loading  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  injurious  of  all  the  abuses  to  which 
pneumatic  tires  are  subject.  Some  manufacturers 
have  stated  that  as  high  as  90%  of  the  tires  which 
fail  to  reach  their  mileage  expectancy,  do  so  be- 
cause sufficient  air  pressure  has  not  been  carried. 

The  proper  inflation  for  a pneumatic  tire  has  al- 
ways been  a source  of  disagreement.  Obviously  it 
is  foolish  to  inflate  a 4"  tire  which  equips  a light 
roadster  and  carries  only  50O'  pounds  weight  to  the 
same  pressure  that  a 4"  tire  on  a heavy  touring  car 
and  carrying  750  pounds  weight  is  inflated.  And 
yet  manufacturers  have  heretofore  advised  an  ar- 
bitrary inflation  of  18  or  20  pounds  pressure  per 
cross  sectional  inch  of  the  tire  regardless  of  the 
weight  which  it  carried. 

Recently  seventeen  of  the  largest  tire  manufac- 
turers have  acknowledged  that  such  recommenda- 
tions were  wrong;  acknowledged  that  a tire  should 
be  inflated  for  the  load  which  it  actually  carries. 

The  Goodrich  Tire  Caliper  has  been  devised  by 
The  B.  F.  Goodrich  Company  to  relieve  this  situa- 
tion and  to  give  users  of  pneumatic  tires  an  easy 


239 


method  of  determining  proper  inflation.  By  adjust- 
ing the  caliper  so  that  the  two  arms  touch  the  sides 
of  the  tire  a reading  on  the  scale,  entitled  “Size 
Scale  of  Tire’'  may  be  secured.  A corresponding 
scale  entitled  “Load  Scale  on  Ground”  provides  for 
a 9%  difiference  between  the  measurement  at  the 
top  of  the  tire  and  the  point  where  it  rests  upon  the 
ground.  By  sliding  the  movable  arm  of  the  caliper 
to  the  corresponding  figure  on  “Load  Scale  on 
Ground”  and  then  fitting  it  over  the  tire  at  the  bot- 
tom, motorists  may  determine  whether  or  not  there 
is  too  much  flattening  or  deflection.  Engineers 
state  that  deflection  greater  than  nine  per  cent,  is 
injurious  to  the  tire  carcass.  If  the  deflection  is 
greater  than  that  figure  the  caliper  arms  will  not 
fit  over  the  tire  at  the  bottom. 

The  use  of  the  caliper  is  exceedingly  simple;  it 
is  not  necessary  to  remove  dust  caps  or  valve  caps 
unless  inflation  is  found  to  be  necessary.  The  cali- 
per is  also  as  accurate  as  a steel  tape  in  direct  con- 
trast to  the  spring  gauge  which  often  weakens, 
breaks,  or  is  thrown  out  of  adjustment  by  rust  or 
particles  of  dirt. 

If  the  caliper  is  not  used  it  is  necessary  to  weigh 
first  the  front  end  of  the  car,  then  the  rear  end, 
divide  each  weight  by  two  in  order  to  determine 
the  weight  upon  each  tire,  and  then  determine  from 
a table  of  recommended  pressures  the  inflation 
which  the  tire  should  carry.  With  this  figure  se- 
cured the  tire  may  be,  inflated  and  gauged  with  a 
pressure  gauge.  Should  that  be  inaccurate,  the 


240 


motorists  will  be  unable  to  inflate  the  tires  to  the 
exact  pressure  which  they  should  carry. 


Fig.  121 — High  Rubber  Cushion  Tire  Contrasted  with  Ordinary  Type 
Truck  Tire. 


Fig.  122 — Sectional  Block  Tire  (Dual). 

The  tire  caliper  has  been  adjudged  by  men  of 


241 


authority  as  the  only  scientific,  unfailing  method  of 
determining  proper  tire  inflation. 

In  cushion  tires,  the,  object  sought  is  to  obtain 
freedom  from  punctures,  blow-outs,  etc.,  secured 
in  the  solid  tire  together  with  the  resiliency  ob- 
tained from  the  pneumatic  tire.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  proportioning  the  quantity  of  rubber  in 
the  compound  and  by  the  method  of  arranging 
the  supporting  ribs  or  bridges.  The  surfaces  of 
the  tread  in  some  cases  are  grooved  or  cupped  in 
order  that  firm  traction  and  avoidance  of  skid- 
ding may  be  secured.  These  tires  are  held  to  the 
rim  in  a similar  manner  to  the  pneumatic  tires 
and  the  latest  designs  allows  for  interchangeability 
with  the  latter.  This  form  of  tire  is  applicable 
both  to  passenger  and  light  commercial  cars,  the 
conditions  of  load  and  speed  being  the  governing 
specifications  as  may  be  readily  understood. 

There  are  many  styles  of  solid  tire,  some  forms 
of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  ii8a.  They  dififer  in 
the  method  of  attaching  to  the  rim,  either  being 
secured  by  simply  a clincher  rim  or  fitted  with 
transverse  wires  held  under  the  hooks  of  the  rim 
flange  or  containing  longitudinal  wires  either  at 
the  center,  near  the  rim  or  at  the  side.  Another 
method  of  holding  the  rubber  firmly  to  the  base 
is  by  making  the  base  of  metal  dovetailed  to  hold 
a hard  rubber  sub-base  .and  vulcanizing  the  tire 
to  it.  This  practice  is  applicable  for  the  largest 
tires  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  120. 

Tires  may  be  arranged  either  single  or  dual, 
depending  upon  the  weight  to  be  carried,  gener- 


242 


ally  single  in  front  and  dual  on  the  rear  wheels, 
as  6o%  of  the  normal  load  may  be  considered  as 
supported  on  the  latter. 

A type  of  solid  tire  which  meets  the  require- 
ments of  heavy  vehicle  service  is  the  ^‘sectional 
block  tire.”  ( Fig.  122.)  The  advaniages  claimed 
for  this  style  are  greater  life,  greater  resiliency  and 
less  cost  of  renewal,  as  the  sections  may  be  replaced 
individually,  not  necessitating  the  application  of  a 
complete  tire  when  the  damage  extends  to  but  a 
limited  portion. 

CARE  OF  TIRES. 

Whether  the  tire  be  used  in  passenger  or  com- 
mercial service,  the  desire  to  secure  continuous 
service  with  the  least  delay  and  expense  is  com- 
mon. Although  the  pneumatic  tire  is  most  vul- 
nerable, yet  there  are  precautions  which  apply  to 
all  rubber  tires  because  they  are  rubber,  and 
therefore  susceptible  to  the  abuses  which  rubber 
will  not  withstand. 

Elasticity  is  a characteristic  of  many  sub- 
stances, but  the  bare  mention  of  the  word  brings 
to  our  minds  the  ability  of  rubber  to  suffer  dis- 
tortion and  return  to  its  original  shape.  Yet 
rubber,  like  steel,  when  strained  beyond  its  elas- 
tic limit,  will  not  return  to  shape.  The  fibres  or 
small  particles  possess  the  ability  to  hold  together 
and  resist  motion,  but  when  their  resistance  has 
been  exceeded  they  are  permanently  separated 
and  their  power  of  cohesion  is  lost.  In  other 
words,  the  material  is  said  to  be  overloaded. 
Apply  this  explanation  to  a rubber  band  which 


243 


we  stretch,  or  a rubber  tire  which  we  compress, 
it  is  evident  that  the  results  are  the  same.  A tire 
of  a given  size  is  designed  and  recommended  after 
tests  to  carry  a given  load  indefinitely.  It  is  not 
reasonable  to  expect  it  to  carry  twice  or  three 
times  the  load  continuously,  yet  unconsciously  a 
large  number  of  users  continually  overload  their 
tires  and  are  at  a loss  to  understand  their  early 
failure. 

When  the  tires  are  installed  to  carry  full  load 
distributed  over  the  vehicle,  it  is  evident  that 
piling  it  upon  the  rear  end  for  easy  removal  by  a 
lazy  driver  exerts  unnecessary  strain  on  the  tires. 
Considerable  overhang  produces  a powerful 
crushing  leverage  amounting  in  effect  to  a heavy 
overload.  When  it  is  possible  to  unload  a truck 
should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  over  night  fully 
loaded. 

Overspeeding  is  responsible  for  many  accidents 
and  casualties  and  is  to  be  heartily  discouraged 
from  every  standpoint.  In  this  connection  it  is 
well  to  consider  the  blows  to  which  the  tire  is 
subjected  when  striking  an  obstacle  at  high  speed. 
As  a rule  the  maximum  speed  of  the  electric 
vehicle  lies  within  the  range  dictated  by  safety 
and  economy,  so  that  difficulty  from  this  source  is 
reduced  to  a minimum. 

When  passing  over  railroad  tracks  or  ruts  care 
should  be  exercised  so  that  the  blow  may  be  as 
small  as  possible.  Similarly,  in  backing  against  a 
curbstone,  it  should  not  be  used  as  a stop  placed 
there  for  the  convenience  of  the  driver. 


244 


The  deterioration  produced  by  the  several 
forms  of  abuse  known  as  overloading  may  not  be 
even  visible  to  the  eye,  but  the  results  will  in 
time  show  up  and  the  failure  be  unjustly 
laid  to  faulty  material  or  poor  workmanship.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  5^  excess  weight  added 
to  the  vehicle  imposes  an  overload  of  15%  in 
wear  and  tear  on  tires.  The  salvation  is  in  pre- 
vention alone.  Tires  which  are  too  large,  ''over- 
size,’' are  a profitable  investment  in  the  long  run 
over  a scant  equipment.  The  following  tables 
are  appended  representing  safe  load  capacities: 


TABLE  NO.  10. 


GRADUATED 

TABLE  OF 

SOLID 

TIRE  CARRYING 

WEIGHTS 

32" 

34" 

36" 

38" 

40" 

42" 

Cross  Section. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

mph. 

2" 

Singles  

. . 450 

475 

500 

525 

550 

575 

20 

2.5' 

. . 670 

710 

750 

790 

830 

870 

20 

3" 

u 

. . 900 

950 

1,000 

1,050 

1,100 

1,150 

20 

3.5' 

..  1,130 

1,190 

1,250 

1,310 

1,370 

1,430 

18 

4" 

**  

. . 1,350 

1,425 

1,500 

1,575 

1,650 

1,725 

16 

5" 

“ 

, ..  1,800 

1,900 

2,000 

2,100 

2,200 

2,300 

14 

6" 

, ..  2,250 

2,375 

2,500 

2,625 

2,750 

2,875 

12 

7" 

, . . 2,700 

2,850 

3,000 

3,150 

3,300 

3,450 

10 

2" 

Dual  

, 1,125 

1,188 

1,250 

1,312 

1,375 

1,438 

18 

2.5' 

' 

. ..  1,675 

1,775 

1,875 

1,975 

2,075 

2,175 

18 

3" 

..  2,250 

2,375 

2,500 

2,625 

2,750 

2,875 

16 

3.5' 

' “ 

. . 2,825 

8,975 

3,125 

3,275 

3,425 

3,575 

14 

4" 

..  3,375 

3,560 

3,750 

3,940 

4,125 

4,310 

13 

5" 

“ 

, 4,500 

4,750 

6,000 

5,250 

5,500 

5,750 

12 

6" 

(€ 

. . 5,625 

5,940 

6,250 

6,565 

6,875 

7,190 

10 

a 

, ..  6,750  7,125  7,500 

TABLE  NO.  11. 

7,875 

8,250 

8,625 

10 

GRADUATED  TABLE  OF  PNEUMATIC  TIRE  CARRYING  WEIGHTS 


Size, 

Rear, 

Front, 

Size, 

Rear, 

Front, 

inches. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

inches. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

28  X 3 

350 

425 

40  X 4 

850 

1,000 

30  X 3 

375 

450 

42  X 4 

900 

1,050 

32  X 3 

375 

450 

32  X 4J4 

1,100 

1,100 

34  X 3 

400 

500 

34  X 4^ 

900 

1,125 

30x35^ 

450 

550 

36  X 4^ 

1,000 

1,250 

32  X 3H 

500 

625 

42  X 4^ 

1,200 

1,450 

34  X 354 

550 

675 

34  X 5 

1,000 

1,250 

36  X 354 

600 

700 

35  X 5 

1,000 

1,250 

30  X 4 

625 

750 

36  X 5 

1,000 

1,375 

32  X 4 

650 

800 

37  X 5 

1,100 

1,350 

34  X 4 

700 

875 

38  X 554 

1,350 

1,600 

36  X 4 

750 

900 

245 


ALIGNMENT. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a glancing  blow 
against  a curbstone  or  road  shock  causing  bent 
axles  or  wrenched  steering  knuckles  takes  the 
wheels  out  of  true.  When  thus  out  of  alignment, 
the  tire  not  alone  rolls,  but  turns  in  another  plane. 


Fig.  123 — Wheels  Out  of 
Alignment. 


Fig.  124 — Running  in  Car 
Tracks. 


SO  that,  besides  requiring  more  energy  for  propul- 
sion, the  tread  of  the  tire  is  ground  oflf  as  surely 
as  if  it  were  held  against  a grindstone.  (Fig- 
123.  Accidents  of  this  nature  should  be  reme- 
died at  the  earliest  opportunity  by  properly  align- 


246 


ing  the  wheels.  If  the  distance  between  the  rims 
of  the  two  front  or  rear  wheels  is  the  same  at 
front  and  rear  points,  then  the  alignment  is  cor- 
rect. 

OIL  AND  GREASE. 

Oils  and  grease  in  their  proper  place  are  very 
important  factors  in  maintaining  smooth  opera- 
tion, but  when  applied  to  rubber  tires,  the  result 
is  the  ruin  of  the  tire.  The  compound  is  attacked 
and  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  mush  losing  its 
resiliency  and  resistance.  The  garage  floor  should 
be  kept  free  ‘of  oil  and  the  tires  kept  clear  of 
puddles  of  oil  if  they  are  present.  Gasoline  may 
be  used  to  remove  oils  or  grease  from  the  tires,  as 
it  dries  very  quickly. 

ABRASION. 

There  are  very  many  ways  in  which  the  rubber 
may  be  worn  off  the  tread  or  sides  of  the  tire. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  tires  out  of  align- 
ment, cuts  from  new  roads  of  broken  stone,  car 
tracks  and  scraping  against  curbstones.  Running 
with  the  tires  out  of  alignment  wears  the  tread 
very  rapidly,  as  has  been  described. 

Small  cuts  from  litter  or  from  sharp  stones  are 
not  serious  in  themselves,  but  when  neglected, 
dirt  and  sand  work  their  way  in,  making  the  cut 
larger,  and  injuring  a considerable  portion  of  the 
tire.  In  the  case  of  pneumatic  tires,  the  sand 
works  its  way  in  between  the  rubber  and  the 
fabric,  and  with  the  help  of  moisture  weakening 
the  piles,  a 'TIow-out”  results.  The  small  cut 
should  be  repaired  at  the  earliest  opportunity  by 
vulcanizing  as  explained  on  (Page  252). 

247 


Running  in  street  car  tracks  (Fig.  124)  and 
against  the  curbing  are  very  similar.  The  sharp 
edges  of  the  rail  flange  cut  small  pieces  ofif  of  the 
sides  of  the  tire  and  in  some  cases,  such  as  run- 
ning over  a frog  which  has  been  worn  to  a knife 
edge,  leave  big  gashes  which  spell  disaster. 
Granted  that  it  is  a big  temptation  to  ride  in  the 
trolley  tracks  rather  than  bounce  over  cobbles  or 
Belgian  block  pavements,  yet  it  should  not  be 


Fig.  125 — Caused  by  Overloading. 


indulged  in  except  with  the  understanding  that  it 
is  very  damaging  to  the  tire.  In  wet  weather  the 
effects  are  most  pronounced,  as  rubber  may  be 
cut  very  much  more  readily  when  wet  than  dry. 
Small  tires  naturally  sink  deeper  into  the  rail 
channel  and  thus  have  their  sides  worn  away 
more  rapidly  than  larger  tires,  which  sustain  the 
damage  on  the  tread. 

Starting  and  stopping  give  ample  opportunity 
for  excessive  wear.  There  is  probably  no  one 


248 


with  the  least  observing  turn  of  mind  who  has 
not  seen  cars  started  from  rest  with  a jump  to  run 
oflF  at  high  speed.  Such  action  causes  a severe 
strain  upon  the  tire  and  its  fastenings,  and  really 


Fig.  126 — Anti-Skid  Tire  Grips. 


Fig.  127 — Anti-Skid  Chains. 


is  a form  of  overloading  the  elasticity  of  the  rub- 
ber. With  heavy  loads  there  is  a great  tendency 
to  tear  the  rubber  and  fabric  from  its  anchorage. 
Easy  acceleration  will  do  much  to  prevent  injury 
from  this  cause. 

Likewise,  who  is  there  who  has  not  seen  a 
driver  slam  on  his  brakes  and  bring  the  car  to  a 
grinding  stop?  No  motorist  in  his  sane  moments 


249 


would  think  of  holding  his  tire  against  a grind- 
stone, yet  those  who  suddenly  apply  the  brakes 
and  slide  the  locked  wheels  over  the  road  surface, 
are  guilty  of  exactly  that  ofifense.  Yes,  there  are 
emergencies  when  danger  of  accident  may  even 


Fig.  128 — Section  Non-Skid  Tire.  Fig.  129 — Tire  Gauge. 

make  reversing  the  driving  mechanism  necessary, 
but  those  instances  are  usually  far  and  few  be- 
tween, and  our  arraignment  of  the  thoughtless 
ones  is  just.  The  vehicle  should  be  gradually 
brought  to  a standstill  by  slowly  increasing  the 
brake  pressure. 

While  speaking  of  brakes,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  the  braking  should  not  only  be  gradual, 


250 


but  that  it  should  be  equal  upon  each  wheel  and 
tire. 

Adjustments  are  provided  so  that  the  pressure 
may  be  equal  upon  each  wheel  and  periodic  in- 
spection should  be  given  to  this  important  item. 
When  one  wheel  stops  the  car  then  the  entire 
grinding  action  is  borne  by  the  tire  of  that  wheel, 
being  double  the  wear  sustained  when  the  slide 
takes  place  on  both  tires. 

Skidding.  Skidding,  or  the  uncontrolled  move- 
ment of  the  rear  wheels  on  wet  pavements  in  a 
lateral  direction,  is  very  often  caused  by  unequal 
brake  adjustment.  Also,  the  momentum  of  the 
vehicle,  tending  to  continue  in  its  original  path, 
after  the  front  wheels  have  been  turned,  is  ac- 
countable for  this  dangerous  action.  When  pos- 
sible, the  front  wheels  should  be  turned  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  car  is  sliding,  in  order  to 
counteract  its  efifects. 

Several  means  have  been  introduced,  such  as 
tire  chains,  grips  and  special  treads  (Figs.  126, 
127)  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  skidding  and  se- 
curing better  traction  on  wet  or  oily  roads.  Tire 
chains  are  efifective  and  extensively  used  with  sat- 
isfaction. They  should  be  loose  enough  to  slide 
around  the  tire  so  that  the  cross  links  may  give 
traction  to  the  entire  tread  instead  of  confining  it 
to  a limited  number  of  points.  For  this  reason  it 
is  better  to  have  a considerable  number  of  cross 
bars  so  that  the  blows  as  the  tire  grips  the  road 
may  be  increased  in  number,  but  decreased  in 
magnitude.  While  indispensable  for  driving  in 


261 


congested  traffic  or  slippery  roads,  they  should  be 
removed  when  the  road  conditions  do  not  make'^ 
them  necessary.  Under  no  condition  should  they 


Fig.  130 — Tire  Bandage.  Fig.  131 — Inner  Tube  Protector. 


Fig.  132 — Folding  Inner  Tube  for  Storage. 


be  fastened  permanently  to  a spot  on  the  tire,  as 
it  would  direct  the  entire  driving  strain  to  the 
small  section  thus  confined,  severely  overloading 
its  elasticity  and  resiliency.  Finally,  if  the  links 
have  been  worn  sharp  they  should  be  replaced,  as 
the  sharp  corners  cut  into  the  rubber  of  the  tread. 

At  present  there  are  many  special  anti-skid 
treads  recommended  by  the  different  manufactur- 
ers, which  have  the  one  aim  in  view.  The  prin- 
ciple used  is  to  effect  the  formation  of  a vacuum 


262 


when  there  is  a tendency  to  lateral  movement. 
This  is  accomplished  either  by  cups,  small  blocks 
or  projections  from  the  tread  of  many  varieties 
of  shape  and  kind.  (Fig.  128.) 

The  question  of  routing  has  a decided  ettect  on 
the  wear  of  tires,  so  that  whenever  possible  poor 
roads  should  be  avoided  or  a detour  made,  as 
prevention  is  far  better  in  most  all  cases  than  the 
cure.  This  is  a very  simple  matter  with  passen- 
ger cars,  but  naturally  might  lead  to  complica- 
tions with  commercial  vehicles.  Having  in  mind 
the  probable  damage,  however,  means  may  usu- 
ally be  found  to  avoid  stretches  of  sharp  broken 
stone,  deep  ruts,  etc. 

Standing  Idle.  It  is  only  natural  to  expect  the 
rubber  of  the  tire  to  acquire  a permanent  set  or 
become  flattened  under  several  thousand  pounds 
pressure.  To  avoid  such  strain  vehicles  should 
be  jacked  up  and  supported  on  horses  (which 
may  be  very  inexpensively  constructed)  when 
standing  idle  for  any  length  of  time.  Heavily 
loaded  vehicles  should  be  relieved  of  their  load 
when  standing  over  night.  With  pneumatic  tires 
not  only  is  it  necessary  for  the  casings  to  with- 
stand the  pressure  of  the  air  within,  but  the 
weight  of  the  vehicle,  so  that  the  importance  of 
these  simple  means  of  relieving  unnecessary 
strain  should  be  evident  to  all. 

CARE  OF  PNEUMATIC  TIRES. 

The  most  important  thing  to  remember  in  the 
use  of  Pneumatic  Tires  is  to  keep  them  well  sup- 


96t 


plied  with  air.  It  has  been  estimated  that  over 
three-quarters  of  the  difficulties  encountered  by 
motorists  are  due  primarily  to  lack  of  inflation. 
It  is  necessary  to  inflate  the  tire  to  the  proper 
pressure  specified  by  the  tire  manufacturer  and 
given  in  able  No.  12  below  and  keep  it  at  that 

TABLE  NO.  12 

PRESSURE  OF  AIR  IN  PNEUMATIC  TIRES, 


Size 

Pressure 

inches. 

Lbs.  per  sq.  in. 

2/2 

45 

3 

50  . 

60 

4 

70 

80 

5 

90 

pressure  as  long  as  the  tire  is  in  use.  There  are 
remarkably  few  cases  of  over  inflation  except 
where  air  compressors  are  carelessly  or  ignor- 
antly used.  There  is  little  doubt  of  the  fact,  how- 
ever, that  with  a hand-pump,  not  over  one  man  in 
a million  has  ever  put  too  much  air  int6  his  tire. 

There  is  but  one  safe  way  to  govern  the  in- 
flation of  tires  and  that  is  to  purchase  a reliable 
tire  gauge  and  use  it  regularly  for  inspection  and 
when  inflating.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  by  look- 
ing at  the  tire,  kicking  it  or  counting  the  number 
of  strokes  of  the  pump  just  what  the  pressure  is. 
There  is  only  one  reliable  means  and  that  is  the 
gauge  (Fig.  129),  which  is  inexpensive  and  cer- 
tainly pays  for  itself  many  times  over  in  tire 
savings. 


254 


An  erroneous  impression  which  seems  to  have 
received  wide  circulation  is  the  idea  that  in  hot 
weather  tires  should  not  be  inflated  to  their  stand- 
ard pressure.  Although  the  pressure  in  the  tire 
is  not  wholly  independent  of  temperature,  yet  the 
variation  is  so  slight  that  it  may  be  neglected  for 
all  ordinary  conditions. 

The  pneumatic  tire  being  constructed  of  rub- 
ber compound  and  cotton  fabric,  is  intended  to  be 
possessed  of  strength  to  withstand  the  pressure 
from  within,  shocks  from  without,  and  offer  re- 
silience in  motion.  The  side  walls  of  the  tire  are 
subjected  to  a bending  motion  which  is  very  pro 
nounced  and  continuous  when  the  tire  is  run 
soft  or  semi-deflated.  This  alternating  bending 
produces  heat  just  as  the  bending  back  and  forth 
of  a piece  of  wire  makes  the  latter  so  hot  that  it 
cannot  be  comfortably  held  by  the  fingers.  The 
heat  thus  generated  in  the  threads  of  the  fabric 
extends  to  the  other  parts  of  the  tire  and  pro- 
duces gradual  deterioration.  There  are  other 
forms  of  friction  within  the  tire  which  generate 
heat  which  cannot  be  so  easily  avoided  as  the  one 
just  explained.  The  fabric  within  thus  weakened 
may  be  readily  broken  by  a severe  shock  or 
bruise  and  if  not  repaired  will  result  in  a ''blow- 
out.” 

Smaller  cuts  in  the  tread  or  side  walls  may  be 
readily  encountered  and  if  not  remedied  at  once 
gradually  increase  in  size,  causing  more  serious 
damage.  Sand  or  dirt  may  easily  work  their  way 
into  the  small  cut,  making  it  larger  and  finding  a 


255 


place  between  the  rubber  of  the  tread  and  the 
fabric  make  the  gap  larger  and  form  a “sand  blis- 
ter” or  “mud  boil.”  These  blisters  continue  to  in- 
crease in  size  and  speed,  allowing  water  to  find  its 
way  to  the  fabric.  Cotton  fabric  is  very  strong 
when  dry,  but  when  exposed  to  dampness  or 
moisture  it  rapidly  loses  its  strength.  It  can  be 
easily  understood,  therefore,  that  when  a small 
cut  is  allowed  to  develop  and  water  is  permitted 
to  attack  the  fabric,  that  a sharp  shock  to  the  ma- 
terial at  the  damaged  point  will  cause  it  to  give 
way  and  allow  air  to  escape,  in  many  cases  ruin- 
ing both  the  tube  and  the  casing. 

Another  source  of  injury  to  the  casing  is  the 
severe  blow  encountered  at  high  speed.  Al- 
though no  evidence  may  be  left  on  the  outside  of 
the  casing  and  no  trace  of  damage  be  found  until 
a blow-out  occurs,  it  may  generally  be  assumed 
that  the  innermost  ply  of  the  fabric  is  broken. 
Gradually  the  plies  above  it  having  to  endure 
greater  strain,  give  way  until  the  entire  thickness  of 
fabric  is  destroyed,  and  finally  a blow  at  the  dam- 
aged point  causes  a blow-out. 

Under  normal  conditions  of  service  the  tread  is 
gradually  worn  off  and  unless  damaged  by  cuts 
will  not  need  repairing  until  it  is  worn  almost  to 
the  fabric.  Obviously  it  should  be  retreaded  be- 
fore such  a point  is  reached  in  order  that  the 
fabric  may  not  be  damaged  either  by  being 
ground  off  or  subjected  to  moisture. 

Small  cuts,  as  noted  above,  should  receive  im- 
mediate treatment  by  being  cleansed  of  sand  and 


256 


dirt  with  gasoline  or  benzine.  The  sides  and  the 
space  about  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
around  the  sides  should  be  roughened  by  rubbing 
with  sandpaper,  the  cut  filled  with  patching  ce- 
ment, an  application  of  rubber  gum  should  then 
be  worked  into  the  cut  and  allowed  to  set  for 


rig.  133 — Electric  Tube  Vulcanizer. 


Fig.  134 — Gasoline  Tube  Vulcanizer. 


several  hours  before  using  the  tire.  This  treat- 
ment will  suffice  for  small  cuts,  but  with  larger 
ones  vulcanizing  should  be  resorted  to. 

In  the  treatment  of  sand  blisters  or  mud  boils, 
they  should  be  opened  and  the  rubber  cut  away  so 


257 


that  all  dirt  and  foreign  material  may  be  removed 
from  between  the  rubber  and  the  fabric.  After 
cleansing  thoroughly  with  gasoline,  the  good  tire 
surface  around  the  edge  of  the  cut  should  be 
roughened  and  several  applications  of  cement 
given.  The  cement  should  be  allowed  to  dry 
thoroughly  before  each  application  and  the  rub- 
ber gum  added  and  vulcanized  into  place.  Vul- 
canizing may  be  done  either  by  the  acid  cure  vul- 
canizer  or  by  one  of  the  mechanical  types  of 
vulcanizers  such  as  those  heated  by  gasoline, 
steam  or  electricity  (Figs.  133-136). 

Vulcanizing.  Uncured  rubber  stock  is  used  as 
a filler  in  replacing  the  material  which  has  been 
cut  out  of  the  tire  or  removed  by  a blow-out.  The 
vulcanizing  cement  is  different  from  that  used  in 
making  ordinary  repairs,  in  that  it  contains  a 
small  amount  of  sulphur  which  cures  the  Para 
stock  integrally  with  the  old  material.  It  is  nec- 
essary to  regulate  the  heat  carefully,  as  the  vul- 
canizing may  be  effected  best  at  a temperature 
ranging  from  250°  to  275°  F.  Material  which  has 
been  previously  treated  should  be  worked  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  new  stock.  As  explained 
above,  the  cut  or  punctured  tube  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleansed  and  roughened  with  sand  paper, 
after  which  two  coats  of  the  vulcanizing  cement 
may  be  applied,  allowing  the  first  to  dry  before 
the  application  of  the  second.  Strips  of  rubber 
are  then  cut  to  fit  into  the  opening  and  a piece  of 
cloth  applied  between  the  face  of  the  vulcanizer 
and  the  rubber  This  treatment  of  from  fifteen 


258 


to  twenty  minutes  at  the  proper  temperature  will 
effect  the  repair  of  any  ordinary  damage.  Should 
the  cut  be  very  deep  it  may  be  necessary  to  fit 
in  several  layers  of  rubber,  all  of  which  may  be 
vulcanized  in  one  treatment. 

Acid  Cure.  In  applying  a patch  with  the  acid 
cure  outfit  it  is  also  important  to  clean  the  surface 
thoroughly  and  when  the  acid  has  been  worked  over 
the  cement,  the  patch  should  be  rapidly  placed  in 
position  and  smoothed  down  forcing  out  all  air  bub- 


Fig.  13o — Electric  Tread  Vulcanizer.  Fig.  136 — Steam  Vulcanizer. 

bles  and  if  possible  clamped  tightly  to  dry.  In  mak- 
ing repairs  by  patching,  the  proper  time  to  apply 
the  patch,  which  also  must  be  prepared  with  cement, 
is  when  the  second  coat  has  become  '^tacky,’’  that  is 
almost  dry  but  sticky.  It  is  well  lo  have  a clamp 
for  this  so  as  to  insure  better  contact  of  the  patch 
over  the  damaged  part. 

A number  of  vulcanizers  of  the  several  types 
mentioned  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tions, the  principle  being  the  same  in  each,  the  dif- 
ference in  the  means  by  which  the  heat  is  furnished 
and  regulated. 


259 


For  the  temporary  repair  of  a blow-out,  the  most 
convenient  method  is  to  apply  the  inner  tube  pro- 
tector (Fig.  131),  to  prevent  the  inner  tube  being 
cut  by  the  jagged  edges  of  the  casing.  A bandage 
(Fig.  130),  may  then  be  laced  or  securely  fastened 
over  the  damaged  portion  of  the  casing  to  prevent 
dirt  or  pebbles  from  entering.  This  is  a very  satis- 
factory means  for  repairing  the  blow-out  suffi- 
ciently to  reach  a repair  station. 

The  damages  which  extend  through  the  body  of 
the  tire  tearing  the  fabric  as  well  as  the  outer  cov- 
erings, necessarily  require  more  extensive  handling 
than  has  been  detailed  above.  When  the  plies  of 
fabric  are  broken  it  is  necessary  to  cut  away  the 
successive  layers  in  slightly  increasing  size  over 
the  opening  so  that  when  new  material  is  added 
with  sheet  rubber  between  to  efifect  a solid  joint,  the 
joints  of  each  layer  will  overlap. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  the  rims  as  in  many 
instances  the  hooks  of  the  flanges  become  jagged 
or  sharp  and  wear  into  the  fabric  near  the  bead  so 
that  a good  jar  may  produce  a blow-out.  Rust  is 
also  a foe  to  be  contended  with  as  it  is  destructive 
to  the  rubber  and  fabric.  For  this  reason  the  rims 
should  be  kept  free  of  water  and  moisture  and  if  the 
rims  become  rusted  they  should  be  cleaned  ofif  with 
emery  cloth  and  given  a coat  of  aluminum  paint  or 
shellac.  This  treatment  should  be  afforded  at  least 
once  a season  as  it  not  only  prevents  rust  but  makes 
removal  of  the  tire  easier  in  case  of  puncture. 

Inner  Tubes.  The  inner  tubes  should  have  a 
life  greater  than  the  casing  and  this  is  usually  the 


260 


case  if  properly  cared  for.  The  inner  tubes  should 
be  protected  from  light,  grease,  oils  and  sharp  tools. 
It  is  not  infrequent  that  we  see  inner  tubes  care- 
lessly folded,  thrown  in  the  tool  box  to  bounce  and 
knock  around  with  sharp  edged  tools  and  oily  waste. 
Tubes  handled  in  such  a manner  are  hardly  fit  for 
use  when  installed  as  the  oil  has  attached  the  fine 
rubber  and  the  tools  have  probably  produced  cuts. 

The  inner  tube  should  be  carried  in  a special  bag 
or  wrapped  in  soft  rubber  wrapping,  being  sprinkled 
with  soap  stone  or  French  Chalk.  The  illustration 
(Fig.  132)  shows  the  method  of  folding  the  tube 
so  as  to  expel  all  the  air  without  excessive  creasing. 
After  removing  the  valve  stem  to  allow  the  escape 
of  air,  the  tire  should  be  handled  as  shown  in  (a), 
(b)  and  (c).  Compressing  the  tube  as  in  (c)  the 
stem  and  cap  should  be  replaced  when  it  may  be 
folded  as  in  (e),  (d),  (f).  The  bands  used  in  tying 
should  not  be  tight  and  the  tube  should  be  refolded 
at  intervals  so  that  the  folds  may  not  develop  sharp 
creases  which  weaken  the  structure. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a small  nail  punctures 
the  tire  and  gradually  works  its  way  around  making 
punctures  at  several  points  by  circumferential  move- 
ment of  the  casing  on  the  rims.  Before  inserting  a 
new  tube,  it  is  always  well  to  run  the  hand  around 
the  inside  of  the  shoe  to  make  sure  that  there  is  no 
obstruction  to  cause  damage.  The  use  of  soap- 
stone or  French  Chalk  is  recommended  to  prevent 
the  generation  of  heat  between  the  tube  and  fabric 
of  the  casing.  Powdered  graphite  is  also  efficient  as 
an  anti-friction  material. 


261 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  MOTOR:  CONSTRUCTION  AND 

CARE. 

The  electric  motor  is  that  part  of  the  electric 
vehicle  which  utilizes  the  electrical  energy  furnished 
by  the  storage  battery  for  the  purpose  of  propelling 
the  vehicle.  The  energy  to  the  motor  is  regulated 
by  the  controller  so  that  sufficient  power  may  be 
furnished  for  operating  at  any  desired  speed  up  to 
the  limit  of  the  apparatus. 

The  electric  motor  is  no  doubt  a very  familiar  and 
popularly  used  piece  of  apparatus,  but  a brief  ex^ 
planation  will  probably  not  be  amiss  at  this  point. 
The  quality  required  in  any  electric  motor  is  the 
ability  to  do  a definite  amount  of  work  efficiently 
and  immediately  when  called  upon.  In  general 
power  applications  this  feature  has  been  character- 
istic since  its  introduction,  and  is  the  reason  for 
its  universal  use.  This  characteristic  is  very  im- 
portant when  applied  to  the  functions  of  a motor 
vehicle  inasmuch  as  it  makes  the  operation  of  the 
vehicle  simple  and  safe  in  starting,  stopping  and 
traveling.  This  use  of  the  motor  is  not  new  by  any 
means  as  it  dates  from  the  earliest  trolley  system 
and  has  progressed  with  it  over  the  earth.  The 
motor  of  the  street  railway  car  receives  its  electri- 
cal energy  from  the  distant  power  house  by  means 
of  a suspended  trolley  wire  or  '"third  rail,’’  while 
the  electric  vehicle  motor  utilizes  that  furnished  by 
the  storage  battery.  The  energy  available  from  the 
power  house  is  not  limited  as  far  as  the  needs  of  a 


262 


sing'le  car  are  concerned,  but,  from  considerations 
of  weight  and  space,  it  is  possible  to  supply  only  a 
limited  amount  from  the  storage  battery.  This 
restriction  means  that  the  manufacturers  of  these 
motors  must  not  only  furnish  a motor  capable  of 
turning  electrical  into  mechanical  energy,  but  must 
provide  one  which  also  operates  with  great  effici- 
ency and  which  will  add  as  little  weight  as  possible 


Fig.  137 — Field  Pole  Pieces. 


Fig.  138 — Field  Coils. 


to.  the  vehicle.  Under  ordinary  conditions  of  op- 
eration, the  power  requirements  are  moderate,  but 
in  some  instances  such  as  heavy  loads,  hilly  or  sandy 
roads,  the  use  of  power  many  times  more  than 
normal  is  necessitated.  The  battery  is  capable  of 
furnishing  the  energy  and  the  motor  must  be  capa- 
ble of  handling  it.  This  is  very  severe  service,  and 


263 


it  may  be  interesting  as  well  as  instructive  to  point 
out  at  this  time  that  the  electric  motor  is  practically 
the  only  machine  which  can  be  depended  upon  to 


Fig.  139 — Motor  Frame,  Motor  Door  and  End  Bearing  Plate. 


Fig.  140 — Armature,  Commutator  Attached  on  Right. 


withstand  such  abuse  by  sustaining  such  great  over- 
loads. The  effects  will  be  plainly  evident  in  time, 
however,  and  so  misuse  should  be  avoided  and  pre- 
vented to  the  greatest  extent.  This  ability  to  ''de- 
liver the  goods,’’  is  applicable  both  figuratively  and 
literally,  explaining  the  claim  of  reliability  and  pos- 
itive operation,  under  even  adverse  circumstances. 


264 


without  making  the  operating  charges  prohibitive. 
The  battery  must  supply  the  energy  and  its  ability 
in  that  direction  cannot  be  questioned  when  it  is 
known  that  those  of  central  stations  are  sometimes 
called  upon  to  supply  the  light  and  power  require- 
ments of  large  cities. 

The  motor  must  utilize  the  current  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage and  that  this  is  done  must  be  admitted  when 
the  wide  application  of  the  electric  motor  to  every 
art  is  known.  This  combination  of  battery  and  mo- 
tor, therefore,  offer  the  most  satisfactory  and  eco- 
nomical method  of  transportation,  limited  to  safe 
speeds  and  moderate  but  sufficient  mileage.  The 
method  is  most  satisfactory  because  of  the  very 
reasons  of  the  electric  motor;  simplicity,  reliability 
and  flexibility  ; most  economical  because  of  the  few 
parts,  their  smooth  running  and  iong  life  even  with 
hard  wear. 

In  operation,  the  motor  depends  upon  the  phe- 
nomena of  attraction  and  repulsion  between  mag- 
nets and  wires  carrying  currents.  The  magnetism 
is  produced  in  this  case  by  electromagnets,  called 
Poles  (Figs.  137  and  138),  constructed  of  insulated 
copper  wire  coiled  around  cores  of  laminated  iron. 
The  coils  and  cores  are  always  an  even  number,  and 
are  fastened  to  the  inside  of  a steel  ring  known  as 
the  frame  (Fig.  139).  Current  supplied  by  the  stor- 
age battery  to  the  coils,  produces  a powerful  mag- 
netic effect  in  the  poles  and  frame;  in  other  words 
sets  up  a magnetic  field.  Rotating  between  and  al- 
most touching  the  ends  of  the  inward  projecting 
poles,  is  the  Armature  (Fig.  140),  formed  of  a mass 


265 


of  iron  laminations  over  which  insulated  copper 
wires  are  wound.  Ihe  wires  of  the  armature  are 
coiled  in  a plane  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  rota- 


Fig.  141 — Brush  Yoke  Holding  Carbon  Brushes. 


Fig.  142 — Ball  Bearings  for  Motor. 


tion,  and  their  ends  are  soldered  to  a sliding  contact 
member,  the  Commutator,  made  of  copper  segments 
insulated  from  each  other.  Current  from  the  stor- 
age battery  is  conducted  through  the  carbon  Brushes 


266 


(Fig.  141),  and  commutator  to  the  coils  of  wire  of 
the  armature. 

Thus,  the  current  carried  in  the  armature  coils, 
by  reacting  upon  the  field,  causes  the  armature  to 
rotate.  The  Torque,  or  turning  power  of  the  re- 
acting combination,  varies  with  the  amount  of  cur- 
rent in  the  armature  and  the  strength  of  the  field 
poles.  For  electric  automobile  purposes,  the  fields 
are  connected  in  series  with  the  armature,  the 
amount  of  current  in  the  armature  being  the  same 
as  that  in  the  fields.  This  combination,  known  as 
a Series  Motor,  is  capable  of  exerting  powerful 
torque  in  meeting  overloads.  The  amount  of  cur- 
rent supplied  to  the  armature  circuit  determines  the 
power  developed. 

This  means  that  as  the  controller  handle  is  moved 
into  the  positions  signifying  increased  power  that 
more  current  is  being  allowed  to  pass  from  the  bat- 
tery to  the  motor,  which  in  turn  can  exert  a greater 
turning  efifort.  This  torque  delivered  at  the  shaft 
of  the  motor  to  the  chains  or  gearing,  turns  the 
wheels,  thus  propelling  the  vehicle.  The  power 
may  be  absorbed  in  two  ways,  by  propulsion  under 
more  difficult  conditions,  or  by  increasing  the  speed 
with  the  same  conditions.  Should  the  car  be  run- 
ning along  a smooth,  level  road  and  the  current  to 
the  motor  be  increased,  then  the  effect  will  be  to 
produce  greater  speed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a 
grade  or  hill  be  encountered,  then  the  speed  will 
dimmish  in  proportion  to  the  rise  in  elevation.  This 
is  natural  as  it  takes  more  power  to  ascend  a hill 
than  it  does  to  run  along  the  level.  Therefore, 


should  it  be  desired  not  only  to  climb  a hill  but  to 
maintain  constant  speed,  it  is  evident  that  more 
power  must  be  used,  or,  coming  back  to  the  motor, 
that  more  current  must  be  furnished  to  it  in  order 
to  accomplish  the  desired  results.  The  example 
of  the  car  climbing  the  hill  is  probably  one  which 
is  most  easily  understood,  but  the  negotiating  of 
every  sandy  or  muddy  road  amounts  to  approxi- 
mately the  same  thing.  This  explains  why  the  rout- 
ing of  a vehicle  will  have  a direct  result  upon  the 
mileage  which  may  be  secured  from  an  electric  car 
on  a given  charge.  In  fact,  since  the  motor  is  re- 
sponsive to  the  least  whim  of  the  operator,  it  also 
uses  up  the  power  from  the  battery  in  proportion 
to  the  length  and  breadth  of  his  whims,  so  that  a 
careful  and  considerate  driver  may  be  counted  upon 
to  secure  a greater  mileage  with  less  wear  and  tear 
than  one  who  uses  up  power  by  unnecessary  or  sud- 
den stops  and  starts,  driving  through  bad  roads  or 
over  hills  which  may  be  avoided. 

The  vehicle  is  equipped  with  brakes,  which  may 
be  either  of  the  expanding  or  contracting  type.  Ad- 
justments are  always  provided,  generally  by  spring 
links,  so  that  there  will  be  no  retarding  action  ex- 
cept when  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  brake  pedals. 
Care  should  be  exercised  in  making  the  adjust- 
ment so  that  the  brakes  do  not  drag  or  bind  when 
running.  It  is  evident  that  dragging  brakes  would 
cause  the  motor  to  draw  a higher  current  than  or- 
dinarily required,  and  that  the  mileage  on  a charge 
of  the  battery  would  be  thus  reduced.  This  is  one 
of  the  first  places  to  look  for  trouble.  If  the  cur- 


ses 


rent  consumption,  as  indicated  on  the  ammeter,  is 
higher  than  usual  for  the  same  road  conditions, 
then  it  will  pay  to  look  for  dragging  brakes.  Nat- 
urally, this  difficulty  should  be  obviated  by  periodic 
mechanical  inspection,  but  it  is  mentioned  in  this 
connection  as  it  has  so  important  a bearing  on  the 
motor  performance. 

In  order  to  make  the  motor  of  light  weight,  and 
yet  rugged  in  its  ability  to  withstand  heavy  de- 
mands and  shocks,  only  the  best  quality  of  iron  and 
copper,  the  latter  used  liberally,  may  be  utilized. 
Ball  bearings  are  practically  standard  for  reasons 
of  low  friction,  reduction  of  bearing  dimensions, 
quiet  running  and  durability.  They  are  packed 
with  light  cylinder  oil,  vaseline,  or  ball  bearing 
grease,  which  requires  only  occasional  renewal.  The 
brush  holders  are  conveniently  located  for  inspec- 
tion. The  brushes  are  of  carbon  composition  of 
ample  capacity  to  operate  without  sparking  and 
possess  long  life. 

Care  of  Motors.  As  explained  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs,  the  principles  employed  in  the  design 
and  construction  of  the  motors  are  such  as  to  re- 
quire a minimum  of  adjustment  and  inspection.  The 
arrangement  of  the  parts  has  simplicity  as  a special 
feature  so  that,  should  dismantling  or  repair  be 
necessary,  it  may  be  accomplished  with  little  delay 
and  without  disturbance  of  the  supplementary  mech- 
anism. Being  manufactured  in  large  quantities, 
the  parts  are  standardized  and  are  interchangeable. 
This  is  of  importance,  for  to  the  individual  operator 
it  means  that  repair  parts  may  be  readily  secured 


269 


and  installed,  and,  to  the  operator  of  a fleet  of  ve- 
hicles, it  allows  practically  uninterrupted  service 
with  but  few  extra  parts  or  spare  equipments. 

Ordinarily,  the  motor  requires  no  attention  for 
months  outside  of  lubrication  and  adjusting  the 
brushes  to  the  commutator.  Inspection  may  be  made 
frequently,  or  at  least  once  a month,  as  to  these 
conditions. 

The  commutator  should  have  a highly  polished 
smooth  surface  of  a bluish  black  color.  If  the  com- 
mutator is  black  or  shows  signs  of  roughening,  it 
should  be  carefully  polished  with  fine  sandpaper 
and  the  dust  removed.  The  commutator  bars  are  in- 
sulated from  each  other  by  sheet  mica,  which  should 
not  extend  up  to  the  commutator  surface  or  it  will 
interfere  with  the  contact  of  the  brushes.  If  the 
mica  is  not  undercut,  however,  then  a thin  scraper 
or  thin  hacksaw  blade  may  be  used  to  remove  the 
material  to  a depth  not  exceeding  3/64".  Small 
parts  must  be  carefully  removed  from  the  edges  of 
the  bars. 


Emery  Paper  Must  Not  Be  Used  on  the 
Commutator. 

The  brushes  should  be  faced  to  make  good  con- 
tact with  the  commutator,  and  move  freely  in  the 
brush  holders  so  as  to  allow  for  any  inequalities 
in  the  commutator  surface  and  have  sufficient  pres- 
sure on  the  latter.  The  shunts  or  pigtails  from  the 
brushes  to  the  holders  should  be  properly  attached 
on  each  end.  The  brush  holders  should  be  securely 
fastened  into  position  on  the  frame  and  spaced  cor- 


270 


rectly  so  that  there  will  be  the  correct  number  of 
commutator  segments  between  the  brushes.  There 
are  always  an  even  number  of  brushes  and  brush 
holders  and,  for  simplicity,  the  tendency  is  to  use 
only  two  brush  sets.  There  are  a great  many 
motors,  however,  which  are  supplied  with  four  sets 
of  brushes. 

The  armature  should  not  only  rotate  freely  in 
its  bearings  but  should  run  with  the  air  gap  uniform 
between  it  and  each  pole  face.  Probably  the  major- 
ity of  bearings  are  lubricated  with  vaseline  or  light 
grease,  but  there  are  some  motors  which  are  de- 
signed to  use  oil.  Instructions  with  the  vehicle  show 
the  treatment  in  such  a case.  To  clean  a bearing 
thoroughly,  it  should  be  washed  well  with  gasoline, 
and  any  foreign  material  of  hard  or  gritty  nature 
removed.  Lubrication  is  not  so  much  a matter  of 
soaking  the  machinery  in  oil  or  grease,  as  it  is  of 
supplying  moderate  amounts  at  regular  intervals. 
In  the  modern  ball  bearing  motor,  six  months  is 
probably  frequent  enough  to  meet  the  usual  require- 
ments. 

Cleanliness  is  also  quite  a feature  in  motor  op- 
eration and,  while  the  frame  and  covers  are  fitted 
closely  so  as  to  prevent  even  water  from  entering, 
yet,  the  motor  being  suspended  below  the  vehicle, 
it  is  only  natural  that  a certain  amount  of  dirt 
should  find  its  way  into  its  windings.  In  the  yearly 
overhauling,  therefore,  it  should  be  removed.  Dry 
compressed  air  of  about  25  lb.  per  square  inch  pres- 


271 


sure  is  admirable  for  blowing  all  dirt  from  the  field 
and  armature  windings.  If  air  pressure  is  not  avail- 
able, then  a hand  bellows  may  be  used  with  good 
effect. 

After  the  windings  have  been  cleaned,  they 
should  be  inspected  for  broken  leads  and  defective 
or  chafed  insulation  which  might  permit  open  or 
short  circuits.  The  field  poles  should  be  securely 
locked  to  the  fram.e  and  the  field  coils  rigidly  fast- 
ened thereto.  The  above  instructions  cover  the  sim- 
ple items  of  care  and  upkeep  required  under  all 
ordinary  circumstances  in  the  yearly  overhauling. 
Monthly,  it  will  usually  be  found  sufficient  to  in- 
spect the  brush  holders  and  contact  with  the  com- 
mutator, and  every  six  months  to  add  lubricant. 
Like  all  pieces  of  machinery,  a motor  is  sometimes 
subject  to  defects  or  faults.  The  most  serious  of 
these  may  be  located  as  follows : 

Should  the  motor  fail  to  rotate  when  the  controller 
is  thrown  into  a running  position,  it  is  evidence  of 
an  open  circuit  or  broken  connection.  If  this  is  in 
the  motor,  inspection  should  be  made  to  see  that  the 
brushes  move  freely  in  the  holder  and  that  no  for- 
eign material,  such  as  paper,  has  found  its  way  be- 
tween the  brushes  and  the  commutator  surface.  An 
open  circuit  in  the  windings  or  a break  in  the  con- 
necting leads  due  to  vibration  or  damage,  is  also 
possible  and  may  be  readily  located  and  repaired  by 
a competent  electrician. 

If  there  is  smoke  with  a disagreeable  pungent 
odor,  it  is  indicative  of  burning  insulation,  caused 


278 


by  a short  circuit.  This  will  usually  be  shown  by 
the  motor  drawing  a heavy  current.  In  such  a case 
it  is  best  to  discontinue  the  operation  of  the  vehicle 
until  an  experienced  electrician  has  made  an  exam- 
ination of  the  motor. 

These  faults  given  above  are  possible  and  do  hap- 
pen, so  they  are  given  here,  but  are  found  very  sel- 
dom in  the  large  number  of  vehicles  operating  daily 
in  the  hands  of  unskilled  attendants. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  CONTROLLER:  CONSTRUCTION 
AND  CARE. 

The  function  of  the  controller  is  to  regulate  the 
speed  and  direction  of  motion  of  the  vehicle.  This 
is  accomplished  by  altering  the  amount  and  direc- 
tion of  current  supplied  to  the  motor.  The  current 
is  increased  by  decreasing  the  resistance  in  series 
with  the  armature,  and  by  passing  successively 
through  several  arrangements  of  field  strength. 
Modern  controllers  ar^e  designed  to  operate  with  con- 
tinuous torque,  throughout  their  range.  This  means 
that  while  changing  fom  one  speed  to  another  the 
pulling  power  of  the  motor  is  not  interrupted,  thus 
avoiding  a jerk  with  each  increase  of  speed  and 
burning  of  the  controller  contacts  from  breaking 
the  current  at  each  step.  Reversing  the  current  is 
accomplished  by  reversing  the  relative  position 
(polarity)  of  the  connecting  leads  from  the  battery. 

The  control  may  be  either  manual  or  actuated  by 
a foot  pedal  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
manufacturer.  Usually  the  controller  is  located  under 
the  seat  in  a suitable  compartment  at  the  driver’s 
left  (Fig.  T43),  in  a front  hood,  or  under  the 
car  floor.  In  the  latter  instance,  the  control  is  com- 
bined with  a wheel  steering  head  and  is  manipulated 
by  the  left  hand  (Fig.  144),  so  that  the  right  may  be 
used  for  the  more  strenuous  duty  of  steering.  A 
form  of  control  which  has  been  recently  introduced 
is  known  as  the  remote  control  type  of  controller. 
In  this  a small  handle  or  dial  regulates,  according 


274 


to  its  position,  the  motion  of  a number  of  plunger 
electro-magnets,  which  in  turn  open  and  close  the 
connections  between  the  battery,  resistance  and  mo- 
tor. The  advantage  claimed  is  ease  and  simplicity 
of  operation. 

Each  type  and  style  of  control  has  its  advocates 
and  all  are  safe,  positive  in  action  and  reliable.  The 
differences  are  dictated  by  the  requirements  of  loca- 


Fig.  143 — Drum  Controller,  Showing  Resistance  Attached  at  Left. 

tion  and  the  range  of  speed  to  be  regulated.  The 
prime  consideration  in  each  controller  is  for  the  ut- 
most simplicity,  both  in  construction  and  operation. 
Great  study  and  much  experiment  has  been  ex- 
pended toward  that  end,  having  efficiency  of  opera- 
tion and  positive  action  clearly  in  mind. 

Structurally,  the  simple  drum  controller  (Fig. 
144,  consists  of  a cylinder,  or  section  of  one,  ro- 
tated by  a handle.  The  drum  is  provided  with  copper 
segments  upon  its  surface,  upon  which  rest  copper 
contact  fingers  under  slight  pressure.  To  the  fingers 
are  attached  the  leads  from  the  battery,  motor  and 


276 


resistance.  The  segments  on  the  drum  connect  the 
fingers  electrically  in  a similar  manner  to  the  closing 
of  a switch.  When  the  controller  handle  is  in  the 
''neutral’’  position  no  contact  is  made  by  the  seg- 
ments and  the  fingers  so  that  no  current  flows  from 
one  lead  to  another.  This  is  the  normal  position 
of  the  controller  for  current  "ofif”  and  should  al- 
ways be  left  so  when  the  operator  brings  the  car 


Fig,  144 — Controller  Under  Floor  of  Car. 

to  a standstill  and  leaves  it.  A number  of  designs 
of  this  type  of  controller  are  arranged  so  that  when 
the  handle  is  brought  into  this  position  and  is  to  be 
left  there  for  a time  an  auxiliary  handle  or  safety 
switch  may  be  released,  discontinuing  any  connec- 
tions between  the  battery  and  controller,  so  that  an 
accidental  movement  of  the  controller  handle  may 


’ 276 


not  start  the  vehicle  and  cause  damage.  As  the 
drum  is  rotated  the  segments  are  brought  under 
the  fingers  making  a combination  of  connections 
between  the  battery,  resistance,  and  motor  field  and 
armature  terminals. 

The  first  position  is  one  designed  to  give  low 
speed  and  high  starting  torque  so  that  the  vehicle 


Fig.  145 — Controller  with  Motor  Brake. 


may  be  started  from  rest  easily,  without  jerk,  but 
surely  and  positively  under  any  condition.  Provid- 
ing that  the  motor  be  powerful  enough  and  there  be 
sufificient  capacity  in  the  battery,  the  car  will  start 
under  practically  all  conditions.  The  liirnting  con- 
ditions, however,  are  when  the  wheels  are  either 
firmly  secured  in  deep  mud  or  sand,  etc.,  or  cannot, 
make  use  of  the  tractive  effort  because  of  their  ex- 


277 


cessive  slipping,  as  on  a sleety  pavement.  In  order 
to  exert  the  maximum  torque,  the  fields  of  the  mo- 
tor are  arranged  in  series  with  each  other  and  with 
the  armature.  The  motor  is  then  known  as  a series 
motor  and  is  capable  of  exerting  a very  powerful 
turning  effort.  In  order  to  limit  the  current  sup- 


Fig.  146 — Heavy  Duty  Controller. 

plied  to  the  motor  so  that  the  starting  will  not  be 
too  violent,  a resistance  is  inserted  in  series  with 
the  motor  allowing  only  a smooth  slow  start. 

When  the  vehicle  has  once  been  put  in  motion, 
acceleration  may  be  increased  more  rapidly.  It  is 
accomplished  through  the  successive  steps  of  the 
controller.  The  second  step  or  point  of  the  con- 
troller maintains  the  same  connections  as  before, 


278 


with  the  exception  that  the  resistance  in  series  with 
the  motor  is  decreased,  and  in  the  third  step  the  re- 
sistance is  omitted.  To  further  increase  the  speed, 
the  fields  are  arranged  in  parallel  with  a little  re- 
sistance placed  in  series  with  the  armature.  The 
next  speed  omits  the  resistance  of  the  preceding. 
Further  increased  speed  may  be  gained  by  further 
weakening  of  the  field. 

It  is  obvious  that,  as  the  speed  is  increased,  more 
power  is  used,  and  that,  as  the  voltage  of  the  bat- 
tery is  practically  constant,  the  current  must  in- 
crease, and,  at  high  speed  and  in  climbing  severe 
hills,  it  follows  that  high  current  will  be  used.  The 
amount  available  depends  upon  the  battery  capacity. 
If  the  battery  has  a capacity  of  150  ampere  hours 
and  a current  of  100  amperes  be  drawn  continu- 
ously, then  the  vehicle  could  be  operated  for  ap- 
proximately one  and  one-half  hours,  while  if  the 
operation  demanded  but  20  amperes  approximately 
seven  and  one-half  hours  of  steady  running  might 
be  obtained.  The  greater  the  current  the  greater 
will  be  the  heating  of  the  motor,  controller,  resist- 
ance, etc.,  and,  while  each  of  these  is  designed  to 
operate  under  adverse  circumstances,  they  should 
not  be  abused  where  it  can  be  avoided  as  explained 
below. 

In  the  explanation  just  given  it  was  assumed  that 
the  cells  were  connected  in  series  during  the  speed 
changes.  While  this  is  the  case  in  a number  of 
makes  of  commercial  vehicles,  it  is  not  universal,  as 
a parallel  arrangement  is  used  with  several  types  of 
passenger  car.  The  motor  combinations  remain 


279 


relatively  the  same.  The  method  usually  employed 
in  paralleling  the  battery  is  to  divide  the  battery  in 
half,  thus  starting  with  resistance  and  half  the  total 
battery  voltage  available.  The  second  and  third 
speeds  reduce  the  resistance  in  the  armature  circuit, 
while  the  fourth  speed  operates  with  all  the  cells  in 
series  with  resistance.  Thus  by  combining  increas- 
ing voltage  from  the  battery,  decreased  external  re- 
sistance and  weakened  motor  field,  a considerable 
number  of  steps  of  speed  increase  may  be  efficiently 
secured.  Up  to  the  present  time  a range  of  five  or 
six  speed  steps  has  been  considered  sufficient  for 
smooth  acceleration,  but  some  manufacturers  are 
now  furnishing  controllers  having  as  many  as  ten 
steps,  augmented  by  a planetary  gear  shift  for  slow 
running  in  traffic,  or  more  efficient  hill  climbing. 

A form  of  controller  which  is  flat  and  has  but 
two  contact  making  segments,  is  shown  in  Fig.  134. 
The  leads  are  brought  to  the  segments  of  the  sta- 
tionary sector  and  those  from  the  battery  to  the 
movable  contact  piece.  The  advantage  claimed  for 
this  type  of  controller  is  the  small  number  of  mov- 
able parts  and  the  large  contact  surfaces. 

In  the  operation  of  trui:ks  of  high  capacity  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a controller  which  will  handle 
considerable  current  without  overheating  and  with 
small  wear  of  parts  so  that  operation  may  not  be 
interrupted  by  the  frequent  need  of  renewal.  Fig. 
135  shows  a type  of  controller  similar  to  that  made 
use  of  in  railway  practice  where  severe  service  is 
also  met.  This  controller  is  of  the  drum  type  and 


280 


provided  with  insulation  and  auxiliary  features 
which  prevent  sticking  or  burning  of  the  contact 
making  members. 

A controller  which  has  been  introduced  into  elec- 
tric automobile  service  recently  is  known  as  the 
“electro-magnetic  type.'’  The  principle  involved 
consists  in  making  and  breaking  the  contacts  of  the 
controller  by  means  of  a secondary  electrical  cir- 
cuit. The  operator  of  the  car,  by  means  of  a small 
dial  or  lever  placed  in  a comfortable  position,  regu- 
lates the  current  in  this  secondary  circuit.  The  pri- 
may  circuit  is  that  passing  through  the  motor,  bat- 
tery and  controller.  A number  of  plunger  electro- 
magnets operated  by  the  small  current  in  the  secon- 
dary circuit  are  opened  and  closed  according  to  the 
position  of  the  dial.  The  arrangement  effected  by 
the  opened  and  closed  position  of  these  magnets 
determines  the  direction  and  magnitude  of  the  cur- 
rent in  the  motor  circuit  in  a similar  manner  to  that 
negotiated  by  the  segments  and  fingers  of  the  drum 
controller.  By  means  of  this  dial,  therefore,  all  the 
speed  combinations  required  may  be  effected,  and 
the  advocates  of  this  type  claim  simplicity  of  op- 
eration and  flexibility  as  its  features  inasmuch  as 
the  dial  is  very  easily  moved  and  the  magnets  or 
controller  proper  may  be  located  in  any  suitable  part 
of  the  vehicle.  The  essential  difference  distinguish- 
ing this  controller  from  those  heretofore  mentioned 
is  that  it  is  electrically  and  not  mechanically  op- 
erated. A handle  or  lever  does  not  operate  it  posi- 
tively so  that  its  location  does  not  depend  upon  any 
arrangement  of  links,  gears  or  chains. 


281 


Figure  T47  shows  a developed  diagram  of  conne.c- 
lions'"  effected  by  the  controller  in  the  successive 
positions  or  speed  points.  These  points  are  accorn- 
plished  by  the  attaching  of  a star-wheel  to  the  axis 
of  the  control  drum  which  registers  with  a pawl 


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Fiff.  147 — Development  of  Connections  of  Continuous  Torque 
Controller. 


having  a roller  end.  Thus,  as  the  drum  is  rotated, 
the  spring  of  the  pawl  forces  the  end  of  the  latter 
to  roll  into  the  slots  of  the  star-wheel  with  a sudden 
movement  which  can  readily  be  felt  l>y  the  hand  of 


283 


the  operator  and  usually  (Hstinguished  by  a clicking 
sound.  In  this  manner,  as  the  controller  is  passed 
from  speed  to  speed,  the  steps  or  notches  are  sepa- 
rate and  distinct. 

When  an  auxiliary  or  safety  switch  is  combined 
with  the  controller,  it  is  designed  to  be  placed  in  the 
''ofif’'  position  when  the  vehicle  is  brought  to  rest, 
and  allowed  to  stand  unattended.  By  this  means 
accidental  throwing  of  the  controller  into  a running 
position  is  avoided  and  when  combined  with  a Yale 
lock,  prevents  unauthorized  use  of  the  vehicle.  In 
some  instances  three-point  switches  are  provided, 
one  position  for  ‘'running,'’  the  second  for  “off”  and 
the  other  for  charging.  Practically  every  make  of 
car  has  distinctive  features  in  connection  with  its 
control  and  safety  devices,  but  the  principles  are 
identical  in  each  case.  The  differences  are  in  the 
details  designed  toward  simplicity  in  the  operation 
of  the  particular  vehicle  in  question. 

In  some  control  methods,  the  designers  have  seen 
fit  to  utilize  the  impetus  for  retarding  the  motion  of 
the  car  by  adding  a notch  to  the  controller  which 
short  circuits  the  armature  through  resistance,  the 
motor  fields  being  excited  from  the  battery.  The 
motor  is  then  acting  as  a generator,  absorbing  the 
energy  of  the  moving  vehicle  transmitted  through 
the  gears  to  the  motor  shaft  for  the  generation  of 
electricity.  This  action  gradually  retards  the  motion 
and  is,  therefore,  known  as  an  “Electric  Brake.” 
When  a controller  of  the  side  lever  type  (Fig.  145) 
is  thus  equipped,  the  handle  of  the  controller  is 
pressed  forward  for  the  forward  speeds,  and  back 


283 


past  the  neutral  or  ''off”  position  for  electric  brak- 
ing. Pressing  the  handle  further  back  beyond  the 
electric  brake  notch,  usually  tightens  a small  band 
brake  operating  upon  a pulley  on  an  extension  of  the 
motor  shaft.  This  method  of  braking  is  very  power- 
ful and  is  convenient  for  those  who  find  the  opera- 
tion of  brake  pedals  difficult. 

The  remarks  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  on  the 
subject  of  controllers  have  been  confined  to  the  con- 
trol of  single  motor  drives.  The  same  principles 
are  applied,  however,  to  the  operation  of  two  or  four 
motor  equipments,  with  slight  changes  in  the 
wiring. 

Owing  to  the  simplicity  and  the  ease  with  which 
variations  of  speed  and  manoeuvering  may  be  ac- 
complished, the  electric  drive  has  reached  high 
favor  in  a great  number  of  heavy  duty  vehicle  ap- 
plications. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  tract- 
ors for  heavy  materials  such  as  lumber,  coal,  ma- 
chinery, building  materials,  etc.,  as  well  as  coaches 
and  omnibuses. 

Care.  The  arcing  at  the  points  of  a knife  switch 
when  slowly  opened  is  no  doubt  familiar  to  most 
readers,  and  the  appearance  of  the  scarred  metal 
is  evidence  that  the  switch  was  carelessly  opened. 
This  action  takes  place  to  a certain  extent  in  the 
controller  if  the  drum  is  held  between  the  notches. 
The  fingers  are  held  onto  the  segments  of  the  drum 
by  a moderate  pressure  and  are  faced  to  make  good 
contact.  Should  the  contact  be  poor,  however, 
touching  at  only  a few  points,  or  the  finger  slowly 
drawn  from  the  segment,  then  there  will  be  an  arc 


284 


between  them  causing  a blistered  surface.  This 
can  easily  be  avoided  by  having  the  contact  sur- 
faces well  faced  with  proper  pressure  and  the 
spring  of  the  pawl  tightened  sufficiently  to  cause 
the  drum  to  stop  exactly  in  the  notch.  When  work- 
ing on  the  controller  it  is  well  to  disconnect  the  bat- 
tery leads  so  as  to  avoid  burns  or  short  circuits. 

Lubrication  should  be  frequent,  regular  and  mod- 
erate. About  once  a week  when  in  daily  service, 
inspection  should  be  made  and  the  fingers  adjusted 
to  an  even,  moderate  tension.  They  should  be  run 
parallel  with  the  drum  and  faced  with  sandpaper 
so  as  to  make  good  contact.  Badly  burned  fingers 
should  be  replaced  and  fitted  into  position.  The 
drum  segments  should  be  kept  bright  and  clean  and 
lubricated  by  being  wiped  with  a linen  rag  and  a 
small  amount  of  vaseline.  If  they  are  blistered  or 
pitted,  they  should  be  smoothed  down  with  sand- 
paper. When  it  is  necessary  to  face  fingers  to  the 
drum,  the  sandpapering  should  be  done  upon  the 
fingers  rather  than  the  drum  segments  as  the  latter 
are  not  as  easily  replaced  as  the  fingers. 


285 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  CHASSIS:  ITS  COMPONENTS:  THEIR 
UPKEEP. 

There  are  two  broad  divisions  in  the  field  of  elec- 
tric cars,  commonly  designated  as  passenger  and 
commercial  vehicles.  The  former  include  the  small 
runabouts,  coupes  or  limousines,  while  the  latter 
are  commonly  called  trucks.  In  this  latter  classifi- 
cation should  also  be  found  the  industrial  vehicles 
electrically  propelled,  such  as  baggage  and  dock 
trucks  as  well  as  storage  battery  cranes  and  loco- 
motives. To  develop  detailed  descriptions  of  the 
many  forms  in  which  these  vehicles  may  be  found 
is  neither  practicable  in  a volume  of  this  character, 
nor  is  it  necessary,  as  the  principles  are  identical 
in  all  storage  battery  vehicles,  and,  when  once  un- 
derstood, the  differences  in  design  may  be  readily 
grasped. 

The  construction  of  bodies  has  received  skilful 
and  exact  treatment  for  many  years.  Coach-build- 
ing is  not  a new  industry  by  any  means  and  the 
advent  of  the  automobile  has  simply  opened  a 
broader  field  of  endeavor  to  the  artisans  of  that 
trade.  True,  the  shapes  and  materials  used  have 
changed  somwhat,  but  in  the  pleasure  car,  the  re- 
quirements of  comfort  and  protection  from  wind  or 
weather  are  identical  The  lines  of  the  body  are 
shaped  so  as  to  be  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  oppose  the 
least  resistance  to  the  wind.  The  necessity  for 
strength  and  light  weight  have  brought  about  the 
use  of  aluminum  for  panels,  mouldings  and  seams, 

displacing  wood  to  a great  extent. 

286 


^riic  ulinost  simplicity  and  economy  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  design  of  bodies  intended  for  sales- 
men's, ins{)ectors',  or  other  business  runabouts, 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  identical  chassis  may 
be  surmounted  with  an  enclosed  type  of  body, 
which,  in  lavish  furnishing  and  refinements  for 
luxurious  comfort,  might  excel  the  splendor  of 
royal  equipages.  The  features  of  strength,  sim- 
plicity and  economy  of  operation,  however,  are  as 
well  developed  in  the  most  commonplace  looking 
carrier  of  merchandise,  as  in  the  most  exquisitely 
furnished  brougham.  The  trimmings  and  fittings 
are  matters  of  taste  and  choice,  dictated  by  the  re- 
quirements of  the  owner. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  motor  vehicle  into 
the  transportation  departments  of  the  various  in- 
dustries, new  requirements  were  placed  upon  the 
design  of  the  chassis  and  bodies  used.  These  were 
the  result  of  carrying  heavier  loads  and  moving  at 
higher  speeds  than  were  possible  with  the  horse 
drawn  vehicles.  As  one  of  the  economies  of  the 
motor  vehicle  consists  in  moving  its  loads  at  these 
greater  speeds,  innovations  were  made  in  providing 
many  varieties  of  .special  bodies,  combining 
strength,  light  weight  and  quick  loading  and  un- 
loading facilities.  Bodies  of  such  construction  are 
characteristic  of  motor  vehicles  in  general  and  no 
doubt  familiar  to  all. 

In  electric  vehicle  practice  the  word  chassis  !s 
used  to  designate  the  parts  of  the  car  other  than 
the  battery  and  body.  These  parts  consist  of  the 


287 


wheels,  frame  and  supporting  springs  as  well  as 
the  controller,  motor,  gearing  and  steering  appa- 
ratus. The  motor  and  controller  are  pieces  of  elec- 
trical apparatus  and  are  treated  separately  in  Chap- 
ters IX.  and  X. 

Frame.  The  body  with  its  load  is  supported 
upon  a strong,  but  somewhat  flexible,  structure 
known  as  the  Frame  (Fig.  148),  which  in  turn  rests 
on  springs  attached  to  the  front  and  rear  axles. 
By  this  arrangement,  as  much  of  the  weight  of  the 
vehicle  as  possible  is  carried  on  the  springs,  cush- 
ioning the  shocks  and  reducing  the  vibration. 

The  frame  is  composed  of  two  side  members  and 
several  cross  members,  so  that  with  proper  riveting 


Fig,  148 — Frame  with  Underslung  , Battery  Cradle. 


the  parts  may  be  combined  into  a unit  of  sufficient 
strength  to  carry  the  load  and  maintain  the  proper 
relation  between  the  sections  of  the  driving  gear 
under  the  road  shocks  or  the  distorting  effects  of 
the  inequalities  of  the  road  surface.  Bracing  straps, 
gusset  plates  and  kindred  means  of  reinforcement 
are  used  to  effect  the  desired  result.  Pressed  steel 
forms  are  usually  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  as 
they  combine  the  requisite  strength  with  light 
weight.  The  frame  shapes  differ  widely,  depend- 


288 


ing  upon  the  size  and  service  requirements  of  the 
vehicle.  Very  often  the  front  ends  are  cambered 
to  permit  turning  in  a smaller  radius.  The  out- 
siders and  s])i*ing  stubs  are  forged  steel  and  are 
riveted  to  the  ends  of  the  side  members. 

In  pleasure  vehicle  construction  the  frame  is  fre- 
quently raised  at  a point  in  front  of  the  rear  axle 
to  permit  the  running  board  and  floor  of  the  car 
to  rest  lower  than  if  the  entire  frame  were  on  one 
level.  It  is  necessary  for  the  rear  part  of  the  frame 
to  be  high  enough  to  provide  sufficient  clearance 
between  the  cross  members  and  the  rear  axle  hous- 
ing. 

The  storage  battery  assembled  in  several  trays 
may  either  be  underslung  from  the  frame  in  a 
cradle  or  carried  on  cross  members.  While  there 
is  no  rule  or  standard  practice  in  this  regard,  it  will 
usually  be  found  that,  with  commercial  vehicles, 
the  battery  is  underslung,  and  that  in  pleasure  car 
design  the  number  of  trays  are  divided  and  sup- 
ported slightly  below  the  frame  level  under  hoods 
at  the  front  and  rear.  Electric  vehicles  may  be 
readily  recognized  at  a distance  by  these  character- 
istic features  of  arrangement. 

Springs.  In  order  that  the  shocks  and  jars  in- 
cidental to  travel  over  roads  not  absolutely  smooth 
may  be  absorbed  and  not  transmitted  to  machinery 
and  passengers,  considerable  attention  has  been  giv- 
en to  the  construction  of  springs.  Special  formulae 
have  been  developed  for  treating  the  steels  used, 
and  extreme  care  is  exercised  in  the  fabrication  of 


289 


the  leaves  so  that  the  built  leaf  spring  will  be  able 
to  absorb  the  shocks  and  vibration,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  carry  a considerable  weight  without  sustain- 
ing permanent  deflection  or  breakage.  The  length 
and  form  of  spring  used,  such  as  elliptic,  semi-el- 
liptic, three-quarter  elliptic,  helical  or  platform,  or 
combinations  of  these,  depend  upon  the  weight, 
speed  and  class  of  service  in  which  the  vehicle  is  to 
be  used  as  well  as  upon  the  individual  choice  of  the 
designer. 

The  springs  rest  upon  specially  formed  seats 
forged  from  the  axle  proper  or  welded  to  it.  These 
seats  are  curved  so  as  to  conform  to  the  curvature 
of  the  spring  and  are  drilled  so  that  two  ‘‘U’’ 
shaped  rods  of  steel,  known  as  clips,  may  be 
brought  over  the  plate  resting  on  the  upper  spring 
leaf,  through  the  holes  of  the  seat,  and  secured  by 
nuts  and  lock  nuts.  The  ends  of  the  springs  are 
connected  by  bolts  and  bushings.  As  there  is  great 
opportunity  for  wear  at  these  points,  grease  or  oil 
cups  are  usually  furnished  for  lubricating  these 
bearing  surfaces. 

Axles.  Axles  are  very  important  parts  of  a 
motor  car  chassis  because,  upon  their  freedom  from 
failure,  depends  the  safety  of  the  passengers.  To 
fulfill  this  requirement,  as  well  as  to  support  the 
load  properly,  they  must  be  strong. 

Front  axles  not  only  support  their  share  of  the 
load,  but  are  first  to  receive  the  shocks  and  jars 
due  to  holes  and  ruts  in  the  road.  Strength  is  re- 
quired to  meet  these  demands,  and  then  comes  the 


consideration  of  utilizing  the  least  weight  of  mate- 
rial sufficient  to  provide  that  support.  Steels  of 
special  composition,  properly  forged  and  heat 
treated,  have  been  developed  in  order  to  combine 
the  necessary  strength  with  light  weight.  Front 
axles  of  I-beam  section  are  probably  most  exten- 
sively used,  although  tubular  shapes  have  been  pop- 
ular on  the  lighter  types  of  electrics. 

Reference  to  Fig.  149  will  clearly  indicate  the  as- 
sembly of  the  axle  ends  by  means  of  which  the 
steering  mechanism  is  combined  with  the  load  sup- 


Fig.  149 — Front  Axle  Construction. 


porting  members.  The  ends  of  the  axle  are  yoked 
so  that  a knuckle  with  spindle  for  the  wheel  and 
steering  arm  may  each  be  mounted  in  anti-friction 
bearings,  thus  permitting  both  free  rolling  of  the 
wheels  and  steering  with  a powerful  leverage.  The 
projecting  arms  of  the  knuckles  at  each  end  of  the 
axle  are  connected  by  a ''cross  rod'’  or  "tie  bar"  so 
that  the  movement  of  both  wheels  in  steering  will 
be  identical.  The  motion  imparted  by  the  steering 
gear  is  transmitted  to  the  tie  bar  by  a rod  known 
as  a "drag  link."  The  connection  between  the  drag 
link  and  steering  arm  is  either  a ball  and  socket 


291 


joint,  enclosed  in  a grease  boot,  or  a yoke  and  pin 
arrangement  provided  with  bearings. 

It  will  be  noted  that  all  bearing  joints,  suscepti- 
ble either  to  radial  load  or  end  thrust,  are  provided 
with  anti-friction  bearings  so  that  wear  and  re- 
sistance to  motion  may  be  reduced  to  a negligible 
quantity. 

The  seats  upon  which  the  springs  rest,  and  to 
which  they  are  secured  by  the  clips,  may  either  be 


Fig.  150 — Rear  Axle  Construction. 

integral  with  the  axle  or  forged  separately  and  fast- 
ened rigidly  to  it.  The  upper  spring  seat  surface  is 
curved  so  as  to  give  greater  bearing  surface  for  the 
spring,  and,  in  some  cases,  tilted  slightly  to  obtain 
a caster  steering  effect. 

Rear  axles  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  service  in  which  they  are  used ; 
pleasure  or  commercial.  Front  axles  are  practically 
the  same  for  both  classes  of  service,  the  propor- 
tions being  more  generous,  of  course,  when  used 
upon  trucks.  Vehicles  of  light  weight  may  use  the 


292 


construction  developed  for  the  pleasure  car  chassis, 
but  those  designed  for  heavy  duty  must  necessarily 
be  provided  with  rear  axle  equipment  capable  of 
transmitting  power  efficiently  under  the  stresses  of 
heavy  load  and  poor  road  conditions.  The  live 
axle  is  characteristic  of  the  light  car,  while  the 


Fig.  151 — Dead  Axle  and  Countershaft  Assembly. 

dead  axle  with  countershaft  and  side  chain  drive 
is,  with  few  exceptions,  used  on  the  majority  of 
commercial  vehicle  applications.  The  live  axle 
(Fig.  150)  not  only  supports  the  load,  but  transmits 
the  power  from  the  motor,  dividing  it  through  the 
diflferential  gear  to  the  wheels.  When  the  load  is 


293 


carried  by  the  ‘housing  and  the  enclosed  shafts 
transmit  the  power  to  the  wheels,  then  the  term 
“full-floating”  is  applied  to  the  axle  because  the 
shafts  are  said  to  float  within  the  housing.  Semi- 
or  three-quarter  floating  refers  to  axles  in  which 
the  carrying  and  torque  functions  are  combined  in 
approximately  the  amount  indicated  in  the  term. 

The  dead  axle  (Fig.  151)  is  the  familiar  form 
which  is  used  to  support  the  load  alone,  the  driv- 


Fig.  152 — Diagram  of  Differential  Gearing. 


ing  being  done  by  chain  gearing  from  the  counter- 
shaft to  the  rear  wheels. 

Differential  Gear.  In  order  that  the  power 
from  the  motor  may  be  applied  equally  to  both 
driving  wheels  and  yet  permit  them  to  revolve  at 
different  speeds,  as  when  turning  a curve,  the  dif- 
ferential gear  is  employed.  It  is  necessary  with 
either  live  or  dead  axle  construction.  With  live 


294 


axles  it  is  contained  in  the  housing  but  with  dead 
axle  construction  it  is  incorporated  in  the  counter- 
shaft assembly.  To  reduce  wear  and  make  for 
efficient  running  the  differential  casing  is  made  oil 
tight  so  that  light  grease  or  heavy  oil  may  be  held, 
making  adjustment  seldom  required  but  assuring 
proper  lubrication. 


Fig.  153 — Phantom  View  of  Differential. 


With  the  aid  of  Fig.  152,  the  following  explana- 
tion may  serve  to  give  a clear  idea  of  the  operation 
of  the  differential,  an  important  but  unfamiliar  de- 
tail of  the  transmission.  In  the  illustration  shown  the 
driven  gear  D is  meshed  with  a bevel  pinion  S on  the 
driving  shaft,  but,  of  course,  the  driven  gear  may 
be  of  the  spur  type  operated  by  silent  chain  or  a 
gear  meshed  with  a worm  shaft.  The  four  small 
bevel  pinions  P are  held  on  spindles  in  the  plane 


295 


of  the  gear  D,  and  their  teeth  mesh  with  the  bevel 
gears  G and  attached  to  the  axle  shaft  ends. 
Thus,  when  G is  stationary,  the  pinions  P will  roll 
over  its  surface  and  also  upon  their  own  axes,  turn- 
ing G\  Or,  if  the  resistance  to  motion  of  the  wheel 
W is  greater  than  that  of  W^,  as  in  turning  a cor- 
ner, then  G will  turn  but  at  a lesser  speed  than  G\ 
When  the  resistance  of  both  wheels  is  equal,  then 
the  gears  G and  G^  will  be  revolved  at  the  same 
speed  by  the  small  pinions  P which  will  not  revolve 
on  their  spindles. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  shafts  are  mounted  in 
bearings  of  design  capable  of  taking  the  stresses  of 
radial  load  or  thrust  so  that  the  action  will  be 
smooth  and  quiet  running. 

Steering  Gear.  One  of  the  most  important 
mechanisms  of  any  self-propelled  vehicle  is  that 
used  for  steering.  It  must  be  simple  and  quick  to 
operate  and  positive  in  action  so  that  the  direction 
of  motion  of  the  vehicle  may  be  rapidly  altered 
by  the  driver  with  little  physical  effort.  The  steer- 
ing is  effected  by  means  of  a series  of  links  which 
transfer  the  small  movements  of  the  guiding  wheel 
to  the  steering  arms  attached  to  the  knuckles  upon 
which  the  wheels  are  mounted,  as  explained  above 
under  ‘'Axles.’’ 

The  steering  column  is  furnished  at  the  lower 
end  with  some  form  of  reduction  gear  when  a steer- 
ing wheel  is  used,  which  permits  a small  rotary 
movement  of  the  steering  wheel  to  be  transformed 
to  a reciprocating  movement  of  the  drag  link.  This 
gear  reduction  may  be  by  pinion  and  spur  sector 


296 


(Fig.  154),  spur  gear  and  rack,  or  worm  and  gear. 
At  the  present  time  the  pinion  and  sector  type  is 
very  widely  used  on  electric  commercial  vehicles. 


rig.  154 — Steering  Gear  Assembly,  Showing  Drag  Link. 


For  light  commercial  and  pleasure  vehicles,  the 
horizontal  steering  lever  (Fig.  155)  is  very  exten- 
sively used,  being  practically  the  standard  on  ac- 
count of  its  big  leverage  and  quick  action.  The 
horizontal  lever  is  arranged  to  swing  into  a vertical 
position  over  the  steering  column  to  which  it  is  at- 
tached out  of  the  way  of  the  driver  when  not  in 
use.  At  the  lower  end  a knuckle  with  a ball  end 


297 


rests  in  the  socket  of  the  drag  link.  These  con- 
nections are  usually  furnished  with  ball  bearing 
and  spring  adjustments  so  that  friction  may  be  re- 
duced and  the  handle  kept  free  of  vibration 
Wheel  steering  gears  are  used  on  heavy  vehicles, 
or  on  those  which  are  to  maintain  much  speed,  be- 


Fig.  155 — Lever  Steering  Arm. 


cause  they  are  irreversible;  that  is,  a jar  or  blow 
on  the  road  wheels  will  not  alter  the  direction  of 
motion  of  the  vehicle,  as  might  occur  with  the  steer- 
ing rod  previously  described. 


298 


On  the  heavier  commercial  vehicles  the  steering 
wheel  is  standard  and  with  it  is  very  often  com- 
bined the  lever  to  the  drum  of  the  controller.  Fig. 
156  shows  one  method  of  arranging  the  controller 
handle  upon  the  steering  column  in  a manner  simi- 
lar to  that  employed  in  gasoline  vehicle  steering 
and  control. 


, ,^-^CONTROllER  HANDIE 
r ^ ^ (Am  mvtmt)  ' 


V mnkt  HOURMOTR 
\IAMR  SWfTCHES  : V' 
ASAFgtY  SWirCH  ' 


BRAKE 


BRAKE 


Fig.  156 — Steering  Wheel,  Controller  and  Dashboard. 


Bearings.  It  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  de- 
scriptions in  the  preceding  pages  how  important  a 
part  in  the  operation  of  the  electric  vehicle  anti- 
friction bearings  play.  In  order  that  the  greatest 
mileage  may  be  secured  from  the  battery  capacity 
available,  friction  must  be  reduced  to  a minimum. 
Practically  every  moving  part,  which  is  susceptible 
to  wear,  is  fitted  with  a type  of  bearing  most  suit- 
able to  the  use.  The  designs.  Fig.  146,  show  the 
several  types  very  clearly. 


299 


and  Cone. 
Cup 


Cylindrical 

Roller. 


Tapered 

Rolkr. 


Fig.  157 — Types  of  Anti-Friction  Bearings. 


300 


It  will  be  found  that,  under  identical  conditions 
in  cars  of  different  make,  different  types  of  bear- 
ings  are  used.  These  differences  of  opinion  nat- 
urally exist  so  that  several  styles  of  mounting  are 
employed.  With  very  few  exceptions,  inspection 
will  show  the  bearing  equipment  to  be  of  liberal 
proportions  for  the  loads  sustained  in  order  that 


Fig.  158 — Brake,  Outer  Drum  Removed. 


each  running  part  may  have  the  greatest  freedom 
in  motion. 

Brakes.  One  of  the  most  important  features  of 
the  motor  car  control  is  the  means  used  for  retarda 
tion.  If  the  car  refuses  to  start,  it  is  possible  to 
get  out  and  walk,  but  it  is  not  pleasant  to  contem- 
plate a ride  down  grades  with  brakes  which  are  of 
little  value.  Vehicles  of  up-to-date  construction 
are  in  practically  all  cases  furnished  with  brakes 


801 


of  ample  size  to  bring  the  vehicle  to  stop  without 
jar  or  suddenness. 

The  brakes  are  operated  by  pressure  exerted  on 
the  brake  pedals  situated  within  easy  reach  of  the 
driver’s  feet.  The  rods  from  the  pedals  usually 
transfer  the  pedal  pressure  to  equalizing  bars  sus- 
pended from  the  frame  so  that  the  pressure  will  be 
equal  upon  both  brake  drums  of  the  rear  wheels  or 


Fig.  159 — Band  Brake  on  Motor  Shaft. 

countershaft.  Brake  drums  are  placed  in  many 
cases  on  the  countershaft  for  emergency  brake  use, 
and  on  the  rear  wheels  for  general  service  braking. 
Frequently  hand  levers  with  ratchet  locks  are  used 
for  emergency  brake  control  instead  of  a foot  pedal. 

Most  generally  the  construction  of  the  brakes  is 
of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  158.  The  two  semi-cir- 


302 


cular  shoes  are  pivoted  at  one  end  and  held  at  the 
other  by  a cam  or  toggle  linkage.  The  force  ex- 
erted on  the  brake  levers  causes  these  links  to  ex- 
pand the  shoes  against  the  surface  of  the  drrnn,  re- 
taring the  motion  of  the  vehicle  evenly  and  gradu- 
ally. When  the  shoes  operate  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  drum  they  are  called  ''internal  expanding/' 
and  when  the  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  outer  drum 
surface,  the  term  "external  expanding"  is  used.  A 
band  brake  is  shown  in  Fig.  159,  contracting  on  a 
pulley  keyed  to  an  extension  of  the  motor  shaft. 

In  this  particular  design,  the  friction  brake  is 
operated  in  conjunction  with  an  electric  brake.  The 
electric  brake  is  secured  by  short  circuiting  the  mo- 
tor armature  through  resistance,  energizing  the 
fields  from  the  battery.  The  connections  for  ac- 
complishing this  are  made  when  the  controller  han- 
dle at  the  left  of  the  driver  is  brought  back  slightly 
beyond  "off"  position.  Under  these  conditions  the 
motor  acts  as  a dynamo,  using  the  momentum  of 
the  car  to  generate  electricity.  The  greater  the 
speed,  the  greater  will  be  the  braking  action  auto- 
matically. As  the  controller  handle  is  brought  back 
still  further,  pressure  is  applied  to  the  band  brake 
on  the  motor  pulley  exerting  a very  powerful  re- 
tarding force.  This  combination  is  very  pow- 
erful and  quick  acting  because  of  the  big  leverage 
obtained  through  the  reduction  gearing.  Some 
manufacturers  of  pleasure  vehicles  consider  it  very 
valuable  in  rendering  braking  and  stopping  physi- 
cjally  easy  and  reliable  for  drivers  of  the  gentler 
sex. 


303 


The  brake  shoes  are  faced  with  friction  mate- 
rial such  as  the  heat  resisting  substances  composed 
of  asbestos  interwoven  with  copper  gauze.  These 
facings  gradually  wear  down  and  must  be  renewed ; 
how  often  renewal  is  necessary  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  use  to  which  the  brakes  are  subjected. 


Fig.  160 — Bevel  Gear  Drive. 


Transmission.  Experience  has  shown  that  elec- 
tric motors  of  comparatively  high  speed,  having 
ranges  of  from  900  to  1,600  revolutions  per  minute, 
are  satisfactory  for  vehicle  use.  As  the  driving 
wheels  travel  at  speeds  considerably  less  that  these, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  interpose  some  means 


304 


of  reduction  gearing  between  the  motor  and  the 
wheel.  There  are  many  methods  of  accomplishing 
this  result  such  as  by  sprockets  and  chains,  shaft 
and  bevel  gear,  or  worm  and  gear.  Each  of  these 
means  is  both  efficient  and  enduring,  and  represents 
the  study  and  experiments  of  the  most  skillful  de- 
signers, supplemented  by  many  years  of  experience 
from  the  many  vehicles  in  constant  service. 


Fig.  161 — Worm  and  Gear  Drive. 


Probably  the  greatest  number  of  electric  cars  at 
the  present  time  are  equipped  with  a double  reduc- 
tion transmission.  The  first  reduction  is  in  many 
cases  a silent  chain  gearing,  enclosed  in  an  oil  tight 
case,  so  that  the  adjustments  may  be  undisturbed 
by  entrance  of  grit  or  rust.  The  larger  sprocket 
of  this  reduction  is  connected  through  a differential 
gear  on  the  countershaft  to  the  rear  wheels  by  roll- 
er chain  drive,  or  by  means  of  shaft  with  universal 
joints  to  a differential  gear  in  the  rear  axle  con- 
struction. In  commercial  vehicles  the  final  drive 
from  countershaft  by  side  chains  is  most  common, 
while  the  shaft  drive  is  much  favored  for  pleas- 


805 


lire  vehicles  because  of  its  neat,  noiseless  and  effi- 
cient character. 

Shaft  drives  are  used  either  with  bevel  gear,  Fig. 
160,  or  worm  drive  to  the  rear  axle.  The  worm 
and  gear  reduction  is  the  most  recent  of  refine- 
ments in  electric  vehicle  design.  The  illustrations. 
Fig.  1 61,  show  the  features  very  clearly. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  the  worm  drive  are 
that  a greater  ratio  of  speed  reduction  than  prac- 
ticable with  bevel  gears  is  possible,  permitting  a 
single  reduction  between  motor  and  rear  axle,  and 
that  instead  of  a tendency  to  wear  out  of  alignment 
in  course  of  time,  as  occurs  with  bevel  gears,  use 
makes  the  adjustment  more  perfect,  providing  that 
the  design  and  initial  adjustments  have  been  cor- 
rect. It  is  for  this  latter  reason  that  the  shafts  for 
bevel  gear  drive  are  provided  with  means  for  mak- 
ing the  necessary  changes  in  adjustment,  while  the 
worm  and  gear  mounting  is  enclosed  so  that 
changes  cannot  be  made  from  without. 

The  ends  of  the  shaft  connecting  the  motor  and 
rear  axle  constructions  do  not  remain  the  same 
horizontal  plane  as  the  spring  action  raises  and  low- 
ers the  motor  end  of  the  shaft,  under  the  infiuence 
of  uneven  road  surface.  In  order  to  transmit  the 
power  to  the  rear  axle  efficiently,  therefore,  the 
shaft  must  possess  flexibility  to  compensate  for  the 
changes  of  alignment  throughout  the  range  of 
spring  action.  This  flexibility  is  secured  by  the  use 
of  universal  joints  of  neat  design,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  162. 

A unique  form  of  drive  is  shown  in  Fig.  164,  in 


306 


which  the  motor  drives  through  an  enclosed  silent 
chain  and  floating  shaft,  with  two  universal  joints, 
to  a “herring-bone’'  gear  connecting  with  the  dif- 
ferential gear  in  the  rear  axle  housing.  The  rear 
axle  construction  is  arranged  so  that  the  axle  shafts 


Fig.  162 — Universal  Joints  with  Slip. 


carry  no  load  and  the  differential  is  relieved  of  end 
thrust.  The  outer  ends  of  the  axle  shafts  are  fur- 
nished with  clutches,  engaging  with  the  wheel  hub. 
This  type  of  axle  is  known  as  “full  floating”  be- 


Fig.  163 — Radius  Rod. 


cause  the  load  is  carried  by  the  housing  and  the 
axle  shafts  may  be  drawn  out  from  the  hubs  with- 
out disturbing  the  rest  of  the  assembly. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  proper  distance  between 
the  sprockets  of  the  chain  gearing,  adjustable  spac- 
ing members  are  employed,  called  “radius  rods” 
(Fig.  163).  These  maintain  the  chain  in  proper  ten- 
sion and  secure  the  countershaft  into  a unit  with 
the  rear  assembly.  They  are  also  used  when  shaft 


307 


drive  is  employed  to  keep  the  rear  axle  in  proper 
relation  with  the  frame.  In  some  designs  the  driv- 
ing shaft  is  held  in  a tubular  member,  generally 
attached  to  the  frame  so  that  it  serves  as  a radius 
rod,  permitting  tlie  axle  to  move  up  and  down,  due 
to  the  influence  of  inequalities  of  road  surface  but 
not  allowing  end  movement  of  the  axle.  When  the 


Fig.  164 — Shaft  Drive  with  “Herring-Bone”  Gear. 

torsional,  or  turning  strains  to  which  the  axle  hous- 
ing is  subjected  when  driving,  are  taken  by  a single 
member,  it  is  known  as  a “torsion  rod’'  (Fig.  165  V 
Instead  of  supporting  the  motor  from  the  frame, 
the  design  of  drive  shown  in  Fig.  166  makes  use 
of  a motor  enclosed  in  the  rear  axle  housing.  The 
shaft  of  the  motor  armature  is  hollow  so  that  the 
drive  shafts  may  extend  through  from  the  dif- 


308 


ferential  sockets  into  the  centre  of  each  hollow 
rear  wheel.  The  differential  is  located  at  one  end 
of  the  hollow  armature  shaft.  On  the  wheel  end 
of  each  shaft  a pinion  is  located  which  transmits 


Fig.  165 — Shaft  Drive,  Showing  Torsion  Rod. 


the  power  to  the  rim  gear  on  the  inside  of  the  wheel 
through  the  two  idler  gears.  The  fully  enclosed 
construction  and  simplicity  of  the  parts  are  claimed 
by  the  manufacturers  to  be  important  factors  in 
making  the  drive  efficient  and  durable. 


309 


In  the  descriptions  of  drive  methods  typified  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs,  reference  has  been  made 
only  to  the  use  of  one-motor  equipments.  Although 
the  earlier  electric  vehicles  made  use  of  two  motors 
geared  to  the  wheels  by  single  spur  gear  and  con- 
centric rack,  avoiding  the  use  of  a differential  gear, 
this  design  is  restricted  at  the  present  time  to  spe- 
cial cases.  Such  instances  are  those  where  con- 


Fig.  166 — Motor  Within  Axle  Housing. 


siderable  traction  is  required  for  moving  heavy 
loads  over  difficult  road  conditions.  Then  two  or 
even  four  motors  may  be  utilized,  securing  addi- 
tional traction  by  the  use  of  the  front  as  well  as  the 
rear  wheels  for  driving. 

In  Fig.  167  is  shown  a rear  axle  construc- 
tion used  on  a seven-ton,  four-motor  truck.  The 
axle  forgings  are  made  of  yoke  form  in  a vertical 
plane  and  bored  out  to  receive  the  trunnions  which 
are  part  of  the  motor  casing.  The  motors  slip  into 


310 


these  casings  and  are  clamped  in  position.  A pin- 
ion on  the  end  of  the  motor  shaft  engages  with  a 
spur  gear  meshing  with  an  internal  gear  bolted  to 
the  wheel.  This  gearing  is  enclosed  by  projecting 
flanges  ground  to  form  a grease  tight  joint.  At  the 
front  the  two  casings  swivel  in  the  axle  and  are 
connected  to  the  steering  gear.  At  the  rear  they 
are  maintained  in  fixed  relation,  holding  the  wheels 
permanently  parallel  and  in  line  with  the  truck. 


Fig.  167 — Rear  Axle  of  Four-Motor  Drive 


A two-motor  drive  is  shown  in  Fig.  i68.  The  spur 
concentric  gearing  is  enclosed  in  this  design  also, 
and  the  motors  are  held  in  position  between  two 
steel  channels  which  form  the  rear  axle. 

Another  type  of  two  or  four-wheel  drive  is  ac- 
complished by  placing  the  motors  within  the  metal 
wheels.  As  shown  in  Fig.  169,  pinions  on  each  end 
of  the  motor  shaft  engage  with  the  gear  racks  on 
the  wheel.  The  motor  is  set  at  a slight  angle  to 
the  plane  of  the  wheel  so  that  the  pinions  engage 
with  their  respective  halves  of  the  cog-rack,  being 


311 


free  of  the  other  half.  By  this  couple  arrangement 
a single  speed  reduction  is  effected  without  the  use 
of  a countershaft. 

Sets  of  either  two  or  four  wheels  of  this  con- 
struction may  be  employed  and  the  steering  may  be 
either  by  the  forward  wheels  or  through  all  four 
wheels  for  fine  manoeuvring.  When  the  two  for- 


Fig.  168 — Detail  of  Type  of  Two  Motor  Drive. 


ward  wheels  are  used  as  the  tractors,  then  the  rear 
or  drawn  wheels  may  be  large  steel  tired  ones  such 
as  ordinarily  used  on  horse-drawn  vehicles,  there- 
by avoiding  the  use  of  rubber  tires.  The  road  con- 
ditions, together  with  the  service  requirements  of 
load  and  speed,  are  the  determining  factors  in  the 
specification  of  the  amount  of  traction  necessary 
and  the  efficiency  of  applying  it  by  means  of  two 
or  four-wheel  drive. 


812 


Lighting.  The  electric  lighting  of  motor 
vehicles  is  indeed  most  popular.  For  the  storage 
battery  propelled  car  it  involves  only  the  wiring  of 
the  lighting  fixtures  to  the  battery  through  switches 
placed  within  convenient  reach  of  the  driver.  The 
lighting  circuits  are  fused  so  injury  from  accidental 
short-circuits  may  be  reduced  to  minimum.  The 
lamps  are  made  in  a great  variety  of  styles  and 


Fig.  109 — Motor  Contained  Within  Driving  Wheel. 


shapes  and  may  be  placed  in  positions  mo.st  suit- 
able to  the  owner’s  requirements.  Arrangements 
are  very  often  made  for  trouble  lamps  which  may 
be  attached  to  a receptacle  beneath  the  controller 
for  giving  light  to  inspect  damage  to  tires,  loosened 
nuts  or  the  like. 

The  meters  are,  in  practically  all  instances,  pro- 
vided with  a lamp  of  small  candle  power  shaded 
so  as  to  illuminate  the  dial  without  glaring  into  the 
eyes  of  the  observer.  This  light  may  be  lit  by 


813 


pressure  on  a button  underneath  the  pad  of  the 
carpet.  Withdrawing  the  pressure  allows  the  spring 
to  open  the  circuit.  Hitherto  the  incandescent  bulbs 
used  have  been  of  the  carbon  filament  type,  but  the 
remarkable  developments  in  the  construction  of  the 
tungsten  lamp  have  made  its  use  possible  for  auto- 
mobile lighting  for  voltages  such  as  are  found  in 
electric  vehicle  service.  The  shapes  and  sizes  are 
suitably  designed  for  use  in  the  different  fixtures. 

Recently  the  bayonet  candelabra  base  lamps  have 
been  adopted  as  standard  by  the  Electric  Vehicle 
Association  of  America.  There  are  a number  of 
vehicles  in  use  at  the  present  time,  however, 
equipped  with  candelabra  screw  base  and  medium 
screw  base  sockets  so  that  lamps  may  be  purchased 
to  fit  any  of  these  receptacles.  New  vehicles  will 
be  supplied  with  the  standardized  product  and  it 
is  recommended,  where  alterations  in  used  cars  are 
made,  that  they  also  be  equipped  with  the  sockets 
for  the  candelabra  bayonet  base  lamps. 

Wiring.  The  energy  from  the  storage  battery 
is  conducted  to  the  electric  motor  through  insulated 
wires.  Actually,  the  wiring  is  from  the  battery  to 
the  controller  and  thence  to  the  motor,  in  order  that 
the  speed  of  the  motor  may  be  regulated  by  simply 
changing  the  position  of  the  controller  handle.  In 
many  makes  of  vehicles  a main  switch  for  opening 
the  circuit  is  included  so  that  there  may  be  no  dan- 
ger of  starting  the  vehicle  unexpectedly  or  its  use 
by  those  unauthorized.  For  the  latter  purpose,  the 
controllers  of  pleasure  vehicles,  which  may  stand 


314 


unattended  for  long  periods,  are  furnished  with 
Yale  locks,  so  that  the  handle  cannot  be  moved 
until  the  operator  has  taken  the  driving  position, 
inserted  and  turned  the  key,  which  then,  cannot 
be  moved  until  the  handle  is  brought  back  to  tlie 
‘‘ofif’  position. 

The  wiring  is  done  in  a very  careful  manner, 
giving  attention  to  the  use  of  material  of  sufficient 
size  to  obviate  any  tendency  to  heat  at  normal  loads 
or  overloads.  The  insulation  must  be  good  so  that 
there  may  be  no  leakage  to  the  frame  or  between 
wires.  The  installation  of  the  wiring  must  be 
such  that  it  will  be  secure  in  position  and  not  liable 
to  mechanical  injury,  which  would  impair  its  elec- 


Fig.  170 — Charging  Plug  and  Receptacle. 


trical  efficiency.  To  preclude  any  such  possibility, 
the  most  approved  installations  are  made  by  en- 
closing the  leads  in  metal  tubing,  proof  against 
injury  and  moisture.  Naturally  it  is  important  that 
all  connections  be  firm  and  tight  so  that  there  may 
be  no  sparking  or  arcing.  The  use  of  the  electric 
is  not  prohibited  on  docks,  piers  or  in  buildings 
because  of  the  small  likelihood  of  its  producing 
combustion. 

The  above  facts  in  regard  to  installation  are 
stated  not  so  much  to  explain  the  original  safe 
character  of  the  vehicle,  as  that  is  well  known,  as 
to  emphasize  that  changes  in  wiring  should  be 


315 


made  by  conipeient  electricians,  so  that  by  no  re- 
mote possibility  can  any  inflammable  material  be 
ignited.  Due  to  improvements  and  care  in  this 
direction,  the  insurance  rate  on  electric  vehicles  has 
decreased  and  further  reductions  are  being  made 
periodically. 

For  convenience  in  making  the  necessary  connec- 
dons  for  charging,  a charging  plug  and  receptacle 
is  furnished.  The  receptacle  is  fastened  to  the 
frame  of  the  vehicle  and  connected  to  the  storage 


Fig.  171 — Standardized  Charging  Plug. 


battery.  With  the  controller  in  the  ''off”  position 
and  all  switches  open,  the  charging  plug,  wired  to 
the  charging  board,  is  inserted  in  the  receptacle, 
making  the  proper  connections  quickly  and  without 
danger  of  heating.  The  charging  plug  and  recep- 
tacle standardized  by  the  Electric  Vehicle  Associa- 
tion of  America  is  shown  in  Figs.  171  and  172.  The 
inner  ring  of  the  receptacle  should  be  connected  to 
the  negative  pole  of  the  battery  and  the  outer  ring 
to  the  positive  terminal.  Likewise,  the  negative 
and  positive  wires  of  the  charging  cable  should  be 
connected  to  the  inner  rod  and  outer  shell  of  the 
plug.  By  following  this  method  it  will  be  possible 


to  place  a vehicle  on  charge  f rom  any  plug  without 
danger  of  short  circuiting  or  charging  the  battery 
in  the  wrong  direction.  At  the  present  time  there 
are  several  styles  of  plug  and  receptacle  in  use, 
Fig.  170  showing  a popular  make,  but  they  are  more 
or  less  defective  in  strength  and  there  is  no  uni- 
formity in  size  or  in  arrangement  of  polarity  so 
that  interchangeability  is  not  always  possible.  To 
obviate  this  difficulty,  the  standard  adopted  as  de- 
scribed above  has  been  received  very  favorably, 
permitting  the  car  to  be  run  into  any  charging  sta- 
tion for  a ‘'Boost.'’ 

In  addition  to  the  motor  used  for  vehicle  pro- 
pulsion, motors  are  employed  for  operating  winches, 
cranes,  dumping  bodies,  pumps  and  similar  devices. 
These  are  operated  by  controllers  constructed  for 
the  purpose  and  wired  to  the  battery  independently. 
The  same  rules  of  installation  apply  in  these  cases 
as  in  the  regular  vehicle  wiring. 

The  wiring  of  a bell  or  signal  horn  is  a simple 
matter,  the  only  precaution  necessary  being  to  con- 
nect the  device  across  such  a number  of  cells  that 
it  will  not  be  damaged  by  too  high  a voltage.  It  is 
preferable  to  use  a bell  connected  across  the  entire 
series  of  cells,  and  as  a matter  of  fact,  that  is  what 
is  done  with  but  few  exceptions.  The  bell  is  rung 
either  by  means  of  a button  in  the  controller  han- 
dle or  by  a floor  push,  so  that  in  approaching  a 
street  intersection  or  in  attempting  to  pass  another 
vehicle,  the  signal  may  be  given  without  perceptible 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  driver. 


317 


MECHANICAL  PARTS— THEIR  UPKEEP. 

It  is  stated  without  fear  of  contradiction  that 
there  is  no  piece  of  machinery  which  will  perform 
continuously  without  care  and  attention.  The  elec- 
tric vehicle  is  no  exception  in  this  respect.  How- 
ever, the  number  of  moving  parts  is  small  and  they 
are  neither  delicate  nor  complicated.  The  most 
important  requirement  is  lubrication.  The  subject 
of  lubrication  is  so  important  to  machinery  of  all 
kinds  that  many  treatises  have  been  devoted  to  the 
exposition  of  the  details  of  the  theory  and  practice 
concerned.  J"or  the  purposes  of  electric  automt)- 
bile  operation,  however,  no  theoretical  considera- 
tion is  necessary,  the  simple  rules,  ''To  err  on  the 
side  of  too  much  rather  than  too  little,’’  and  "Add 
in  small  amounts  often  rather  than  large  amounts 
seldom,”  being  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes. 

Vehicles  of  both  the  commercial  and  pleasure 
types  are  provided  with  means  for  lubrication  de- 
pending upon  the  character  of  the  contact  surfaces. 
Oil  cups,  grease  cups  and  grease  boots  may  be 
mentioned  among  these.  Wheel  bearings  are  packed 
with  grease,  while  the  treatment  prescribed  for  the 
controller  as  previously  explained  consists  in  wip- 
ing the  copper  contact  with  a rag  with  a little  vase- 
line. 

The  oils  and  grease  used  should  in  all  cases  be  of 
good  quality,  free  from  acid  and  grit.  If  dirt  works 
into  any  of  the  bearings,  they  should  be  washed 
out  thoroughly  in  gasoline  or  kerosene,  the  old 
lubricant  discarded  and  uncontaminated  used  for 
repacking. 


3X8 


Adjustments  are  required  from  time  to  time,  to 
tighten  nuts  or  screws,  chains,  brakes,  etc.,  and 
may  be  readily  made  by  inspection  of  the  assembly 
of  the  parts,  with  the  aid  of  the  instructions  of  the 
manufacturer  of  the  particular  machine  in  ques- 
tion. These  minor  adjustments  are  practically  all 
that  will  be  required  in  normal  service,  barring  ac- 
cident, except  for  the  yearly  overhauling  which 
should  be  done  by  a competent  mechanic  familiar 
with  motor  vehicle  construction. 

The  object  of  the  yearly  overhauling  is  to  renew 
such  parts  as  may  be  necessary,  such  as  chains, 
sprockets,  gears,  bearings,  etc.,  and  submit  all  parts 
to  examination  so  that  those  badly  worn  may  be 
replaced  before  an  opportunity  for  breakdown  is 
given.  Arrangements  should  be  made  for  giving 
this  attention  as  indicated  since,  with  proper  care, 
the  vehicle  will  not  fail  to  give  satisfactory  service 
year  after  year. 

It  is  the  intention  in  the  following  paragraphs 
to  give  a number  of  hints  which  have  been  found 
useful  in  the  upkeep  of  the  chassis  and  in  render- 
ing its  operation  continuous. 

Steering  Gear.  The  parts  of  the  steering  mech- 
anism require  proper  lubrication,  and  oil  and  grease 
cups  are  supplied  at  points  conveniently  located  for 
effecting  the  most  satisfactory  lubrication  and  ease 
of  access  to  the  operator.  These  should  be  gone 
over  daily  and  the  oil  and  grease  cups  attended  to. 

The  pinion  and  sector  must  be  well  lubricated 
with  heavy  grease.  There  are  many  designs  of 
connection  between  the  drag  link,  the  steering  arms 


319 


and  the  cross  bar,  but  construction  will  readily  in- 
dicate the  proper  method  of  lubricating  the  wearing 
parts.  These  should  be  cared  for  daily.  All  nuts 
and  joints  should  be  kept  in  good  adjustment  to 
prevent  play,  as  a little  lost  motion  on  the  steering 
arms  would  be  magnified  many  times  before  reach- 
ing the  steering  wheel. 

It  has  been  found,  that,  if  the  distance  between 
the  rims  at  the  front  is  from  Vs"  to  3/16"  less  than 
the  distance  measured  between  the  rims  across  the 
rear,  the  steering  will  be  very  much  easier,  and 
there  will  be  less  tendency  for  the  wheels  to  de- 
part from  a straight  line  of  travel.  This  toeing  in 
off  the  front  wheels  is  often  called  gather.  It  is 
important  also  that,  except  for  the  toe  in,  the 
wheels  run  in  perfect  alignment,  as,  otherwise, 
there  would  be  a considerable  grinding  action  upon 
the  tire,  which  would  wear  it  out  rapidly.  The  ad- 
justment for  gather  is  made  by  shortening  the 
length  of  the  tie  rod  between  the  steering  arms. 
Any  nuts  which  have  been  loosened  to  make  ad- 
justment should  be  tightened  up  securely  so  that 
they  may  not  be  worked  loose,  allowing  play. 

In  addition  to  the  grease  cups,  which  lubricate 
the  steering  gear  proper,  it  is  a good  plan  to  lift 
the  covers,  remove  the  grease  and  replenish  about 
once  every  three  months. 

r ns  and  Sprockets.  Chains  and  sprockets 
reC|f  oe  both  adjustment  and  lubrication.  Under 
therrlTr:^’ vof  adjustment  may  be  classed  the  proper 
alif:  hilt  of  the  sprockets.  The  front  and  rear 

tfts  must  run  in  perfect  alignment  at  all  times, 


m 


as  otherwise  the  teeth  of  the  sprockets  would  be 
damaged  and  the  chains  made  defective.  The 
chains  should  run  with  proper  tension  so  that  there 
is  sufficient  slack  when  running  that  they  do  not 
run  hard  or  stretqh.  They  must  not  be  too  loose, 
or  they  may  jump  off  or  slap.  The  distance  or 
radius  rods  are  provided  with  means  for  varying 
the  tension.  After  altering  the  distance  between 
sprocket  centers  by  the  adjustments  of  the  radius 
rods,  lock  nuts,  if  they  are  used,  should  be  tight- 
ened securely  so  that  the  adjustment  will  be  per- 
manent. Sprockets,  as  a rule,  do  not  last  as  long 
as  the  chains.  The  wear  is  evidenced  by  the  teeth 
becoming  hook  shaped  and  causing  a whipping  or 
snapping  of  the  chain.  This  condition  naturally 
imposes  unnecessary  strain  on  the  latter,  and  shouH 
be  avoided. 

It  is  practicable  to  change  the  sprockets  from 
side  to  side  of  the  car,  thereby  making  use  of  both 
sides  of  the  sets  of  teeth.  Obviously,  when  both 
sets  have  been  worn  sufficiently,  then  new  sprock- 
ets should  be  installed.  New  chains  should  not  be 
used  upon  old  or  much  worn  sprockets  for  the 
reasons  explained  above. 

Chains  should  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  fre- 
quent inspection  to  see  that  the  lengths  of  the 
chains  on  both  sides  are  equal,  in  order 
vent  the  rear  wheels  running  out  of  line.  Th 
number  of  links  must  be  employed  in  bo^’  ( 
and  badly  worn  parts  should  not  be  allowt 
for  any  length  of  time  as  they  will  eventu 


321 


the  entire  chain.  When  a rivet  or  bushing  has  be- 
come loosened  from  the  side  plate  from  some  un- 
usual strain,  it  should  be  replaced  by  a new  link. 
Some  roller  chains  are  corrit^osed  of  links  joined 
in  such  a way  that  each  link  may  be  removed  with- 
out affecting  the  others,  but  a great  number  of 
chains  cannot  be  dealt  with  in  such  a manner,  it 
being  difficult  to  separate  the  links.  The  latter 
type  of  chain  is  furnished  with  a master  link,  which 
is  serrated  at  the  top  edge  and  has  pins  a trifle 
smaller  than  the  others  throughout  the  chain.  It 
is  intended  ior  simple  and  quick  removal  or  re- 
placement. In  this  type  of  chain,  if  it  is  necessaiw 
to  replace  a worn  link,  it  may  be  done  by  inserting 
a master  link. 

The  lubrication  of  the  chains  and  sprockets  is 
important  and  in  many  cases  is  practiced  in  an 
erroneous  manner,  namely,  by  smearing  the  bear- 
ing surface  of  the  chain  with  grease  or  oil,  which 
gradually  collects  dust  and  grit  and  causes  exces- 
sive wear  between  the  rolls  and  the  sprocket  teeth. 
It  furnishes  no  lubrication  between  the  rolls  and 
bushings  of  the  chain,  where  it  is  needed  most. 
The  following  method  has  been  found  successful 
and  is  recommended  by  the  leading  manufacturers : 

As  often  as  necessary,  such  as  periods  of  a month 
or  less,  the  chain  should  be  removed  and  soaked 
ever  night  in  kerosene,  after  which  it  should  be 
brushed  thoroughly  and  washed  with  gasoline  to 
remove  any  adhering  particles  of  gummed  oil  or 
j|lr^rust.  After  careful  inspection  and  replacement  of 


322 


worn  parts,  a shallow  pan  should  be  used  for  con- 
taining a heavy  melted  lubricant  in  which  the  en- 
tire chain  should  be  submerged.  The  temperature 
of  the  mixture  should  not  be  sufficient  to  draw  the 
temper  of  the-  steel,  but  high  enough  so  that  the 
oil  will  find  its  way  between  the  bushings  and  the 
rolls  or  rivets  of  the  chain.  Mixtures  for  this  pur- 
pose are  made  up  and  sold  prepared,  or  a mixture 
of  beef  tallow  with  a small  quantity  of  heavy  oil 
and  powdered  graphite  may  be  used.  In  this  way 
the  lubricant  will  penetrate  to  all  parts  of  the  chain. 
The  outside  surfaces  of  the  chain  should  then  be 
wiped  dry  and  the  chain  may  then  be  replaced  and 
adjusted  to  the  proper  tension  on  the  sprockets. 
It  is  permissible  to  apply  a light  graphite  lubricant 
on  the  outside  of  the  chain  from  time  to  time  so 
that  the  surfaces  of  the  rolls  may  run  freely  over 
• the  teeth  of  the  sprockets.  Only  a small  quantity 
of  material  should  be  used  for  this  purpose  so  that 
dust  and  grit  may  not  be  collected. 

Silent  Chains.  Silent  or  link  belt  chains  are 
usually  run  completely  enclosed  in  oil  when  em- 
ployed in  vehicle  construction  in  order  that  they 
may  be  well  lubricated  at  all  times  and  maintained 
free  of  dirt.  They  require  very  little  attention, 
except  for  adjustment,  after  the  first  350  or  400 
miles  and  thereafter  approximately  every  500  miles. 
A silent  chain  operates  best  when  it  runs  slightly 
looser  than  would  be  correct  for  a leather  belt. 
The  lubricant  used  should  be  a medium  bodied  oil 
of  good  quality.  The  joints  of  the  enclosing  case 


323 


should  be  packed  so  that  the  enclosure  is  tight  and 
does  not  drop  oil. 

Countershaft.  The  countershafts  are  supported 
from  the  frame  and  have  means,  such  as  ball  joints 
or  swivel  connections  with  the  distance  rods,  for 
maintaining  the  proper  relation  with  the  rear  axle 
construction.  Adjustments  are  provided  for  keep- 
ing the  shaft  properly  lined  up.  Provisions  for 
oiling  and  grease  cups  are  supplied  where  there  is 
opportunity  for  wear,  and  care  should  be  exercised 
in  oiling  and  turning  up  the  grease  cups  daily. 

If  a brake  drum  is  provided  in  connection  with 
the  countershaft  construction,  the  brake  arrange- 
ment should  be  inspected  regularly  and  any  loose 
or  worn  parts  tightened  or  replaced. 

Differential.  The  differential  gear  is  lubricated 
by  medium  bodied  grease  supplied  in  the  manner 
adopted  in  the  make  of  vehicle  under  consideration, 
such  as  by  grease  cup,  or  by  removing  the  cover 
of  the  housing  and  filling  the  lower  portion  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  lubricant.  In  winter  time  it  will 
probably  be  found  necessary  to  supplement  the  ap- 
plication of  grease  with  a medium  bodied  oil  to  se- 
cure the  proper  lubricating  quality.  Under  conditions 
of  unusual  commercial  service,  it  is  good  practice 
to  take  down  the  differential  housing  every  six 
months,  remove  the  old  grease,  clean  the  parts,  and 
replenish  with  fresh  lubricant  of  the  proper  con- 
sistency. 

Bearings.  As  explained  in  the  description  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  chassis,  it  will  be  noted 
that  every  effort  is  made  to  reduce  the  effect  of 


324 


friction  between  the  working  surfaces  by  the  use 
of  anti-friction  bearings.  With  the  idea  of  main- 
tenance in  mind,  bearings  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  adjustable  and  non-adjustable.  The  latter 
require  lubrication  in  small  quantities  and  do  not 
permit  of  adjustment  for  wear.  To  prevent  side 
[)lay  after  adjustable  bearings  have  been  in  use  for 
a time,  thin  spacing  washers  may  be  secured  from 
the  manufacturer  which  may  be  placed  between  the 
bearings  and  the  moving  parts.  For  sprockets  on 
counter  shafts  a sufficient  number  of  washers  may  be 
added  so  that,  when  the  nuts  at  the  end  are  drawn 
up  tight,  the  shaft  turns  hard.  Then  one  washer 
should  be  removed  and  the  nut  again  brought  into 
position,  when  the  shaft  should  be  lined  up  proper- 
ly and  run  freely  with  very  little  play. 

Front  and  rear  wheel  bearings  support  the  en- 
tire weight  load  and  vehicle,  and  must  be  kept  in 
perfect  adjustment  and  well  lubricated.  The  ad- 
justment consists  in  having  the  wheel  drawn  up  on 
the  spindle  tight  enough  so  that  very  little  play  is 
felt  but  allowing  wheel  to  run  free.  This  is  usually 
accomplished  by  turning  up  the  axle  nut  until,  by 
grasping  two  spokes,  one  at  the  top  and  one  be- 
neath the  hub,  no  shake  can  be  felt.  The  nut  may 
then  be  backed  off  a half  turn  and  securely  locked 
to  prevent  its  changing  position  or  coming  off  the 
spindle.  If  there  is  too  much  shake,  the  adjusting 
nut  should  be  tightened,  or,  if  too  tight,  preventing 
the  wheel  from  turning  freely,  then  loosened  ac- 
cordingly. On  account  of  the  small  amount  of 
wear  occurring  in  properly  designed  non-ad justable 
325 


annular  ball  bearings  of  suitable  size  for  the  hub 
load,  these  bearings  do  not  require  this  adjustment, 
and  no  provision  is  made  therefor. 

The  motor  bearings,  as  well  as  those  on  the 
wheels  and  countershafts,  are  properly  adjusted 
before  shipment  from  the  factory  and,  under  nor- 
mal conditions,  will  require  cleaning  in  gasoline  and 
repacking  with  non-fluid  oil  only,  approximately, 
every  three  months  to  maintain  satisfactory  opera- 
tion. Naturally  the  class  of  service  in  which  the 
vehicle  is  used  determines  the  length  of  the  period 
between  adjustments  and  thorough  overhauling  of 
the  wearing  parts.  Pleasure  cars,  which  are  used 
for  only  a few  miles  daily,  and  heavy  trucks,  which 
are  driven  to  their  maximum  capacity  each  day  in 
the  year,  are  obviously  not  in  the  same  class,  and 
so  common  sense  must  be  made  a part  of  the  ad- 
justing and  overhauling  instructions. 

Greases  and  oils  of  the  best  quality  without  acid 
or  alkaline  reaction  should  be  used.  Wheel  bear- 
ings of  the  roller  type  should  be  lubricated  by 
spreading  the  grease  upon  the  cage  holding  the 
rollers.  In  fact,  the  hub  should  be  filled  with 
grease  which  will  be  taken  up  by  the  parts  when 
put  into  operation,  although,  at  first,  it  may  seem 
to  be  excessive.  A light  grease  is  suitable  for  roller 
bearings. 

Bearings  in  the  gear  cases,  either  on  counter- 
shaft or  rear  axle,  are  supplied  by  means  of  grease 
cups,  which  should  be  filled  regularly  once  a week 
and  turned  down  daily. 

Springs.  Oil  cups  and  grease  cups  are  provided 

326 


at  the  points  on  the  springs  where  friction  takes 
place,  and  small  quantities  of  oil  should  be  applied 
and  the  grease  cups  given  a turn  daily.  This  will 
prevent  bolts  and  bushings  from  grinding  and  wear- 
ing out  quickly. 

The  clips  should  be  tightened  so  that  the  spring 
stands  firmly  on  the  seat  without  play.  Prominent 
spring  makers  recommend  inserting  a layer  of  can- 
vas steeped  in  linseed  oil  and  white  lead  as  an  ex- 
cellent packing  to  be  placed  between  the  spring  and 
its  seat  on  t*he  axle.  The  same  authority  discour- 
ages the  use  of  wood,  paper,  fibre  or  leather  for  this 
purpose  as  being  more  harmful  than  beneficial.  The 
clips  may  be  taken  up  at  the  end  of  the  first  and 
second  week  of  running  with  full  load  on,  and 
thereafter  at  the  end  of  a period  of  about  three 
months. 

Very  often  friction  between  the  leaves  gives  rise 
to  disagreeable  squeaks  and  grinding  sounds.  This 
may  be  obviated  by  lubricating  the  surfaces  be- 
tween the  leaves,  by  prying  them  apart  and  insert- 
ing light  grease  or  oil.  In  performing  this  opera- 
tion. care  should  be  taken  not  to  damage  the  leaf 
joints.  The  most  satisfactory  method  recommended 
by  experienced  spring  makers  is  to  remove  the 
springs  from  the  car  about  once  a year  and  to  dis- 
assemble the  leaves,  washing  them  in  kerosene  or 
turpentine.  After  boiling  in  a mixture  of  tallow 
and  graphite  for  a few  minutes,  they  may  be  al- 
lowed to  dry  and  be  reassembled,  sprinkling  a small 
quantity  of  flake  graphite  between  the  leaves.  It  is 


327 


said  that  this  treatment  will  prevent  rust  for  over 
a period  of  a year. 

Brakes.  The  braking  mechanism  requires  fre- 
quent inspection  and  adjustment  so  that  there  may 
be  no  danger  of  failure  at  the  crucial  moment.  The 
care  as  a rule  consists  simply  in  seeing  that  the 
normal  pressure  on  the  brake  pedal  produces  a firm 
retarding  action.  This  should  be  done  daily  before 
removing  the  car  from  the  garage  so  that,  if  ad 
justmems  are  necessary,  they  may  be  made  before 
starting  out.  If  the  brakes  do  not  hold,  inspection 
will  usually  show  the  method  of  turning  up  on  the 
turnbuckle  or  cam  springs,  for  tightening.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  full  travel  of  the  pedal  pro- 
duces sufficient  pressure  but  there  is  slip  between 
the  shoe  and  drum.  This  may  be  due  to  oil  or 
grease  working  its  way  onto  the  surfaces.  It  should 
be  washed  out  thoroughly  with  gasoline. 

Although  the  adjustments  should  be  made  so  that 
the  shoes  hold  tightly,  care  should  be  given  that 
the  brakes  do  not  bind  or  drag.  They  should  take 
hold  gradually  and  bring  the  car  to  an  easy  stop, 
except  in  emergency  use,  as  a sudden  locking  of 
the  brakes  may  cause  stripped  tires,  skidding  or 
other  damage. 

In  many  vehicles  the  brake  pedal  is  connected 
with  a rod  running  transversely,  suspended  from 
the  frame,  so  that  the  pressure  applied  to  the  brake 
pedal  may  be  equalized  and  distributed  evenly  to 
the  brakes  by  means  of  this  equalizing  bar.  Ad- 
justments are  provided  so  that  the  action  of  the 


328 


rods  to  the  brake  shoes  may  be  altered,  giving  equal 
retardation  on  each  side  of  the  car.  This  will  be 
very  helpful  in  preventing  skidding. 

Dragging  brakes  not  only  cause  unnecessary  wear 
of  the  brake  lining  but  use  up  power,  thereby  re- 
ducing  speed  and  mileage.  The  shoes  should  ride 
about  free  of  the  drums  when  the  pedal  is  in  the 
position  to  prevent  any  such  trouble.  Brakes 


Fig.  172 — Standardized  Charging  Receptacle. 


furnished  with  ratchet  locks  should  be  released  be- 
fore the  car  is  started.  Some  vehicles  are  furnished 
with  automatic  switches  which  open  the  circuit 
when  the  brakes  are  locked ; others  have  a bell  ring- 
ing contact  to  indicate  that  both  power  and  brakes 
are  operative,  but  differences  of  opinion  exist  as  to 
the  relative  advantages  of  these  means  of  securing 
fool-proof  construction. 


329 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  COST  OF  OPERATING  ELECTRICS 
VS.  HORSES  AND  GAS  TRUCKS. 

Generally  speaking,  electric  trucks  can  be  operated 
for  20%  to  35%  less  than  horses  or  gas  trucks  and 
in  some  cases  at  50%  less  than  gas  trucks  on  city 
loutes.  This  is  including  everything — interest  on  the 
investment,  depreciation,  repairs,  battery  upkeep  and 
renewals,  insurance,  license,  etc. 

The  foregoing  statement  is  based  upon  evidence  of 
users  of  electric  trucks — not  upon  mere  claims  of 
electric  truck  manufacturers.  For  instance,  Mr. 
Cowie,  Vice  President  of  the  American  Express 
Company,  made  the  statement  that  in  their  experi- 
ence electric  truck  operating  costs  versus  gas  truck 
operating  costs  are  as  17  is  to  25 — gas  truck  costs 
are  nearly  50%  higher. 

Mr.  Frank  Rushton,  Rosedale,  Kansas,  in  an  ad- 
dress at  the  Pie  Bakers’  Convention  at  Chicago  in 
September,  1922,  stated  that  his  company  was  operat- 
ing 24  electric  trucks  and  17  gas  trucks  and  his  cost 
of  operating  the  24  electric  vehicles  for  the  year 
1921  was  only  $17,009.17  as  against  $30,267.58  for 
operating  only  17  gas  cars.  His  itemized  figures  are 
as  follows : 


17  Gas  Cars  24  Electric  Cars 


Gasoline  and  oil 

Repairs  

Tires  

Labor  garage  . . 

Licenses  

Depreciation  

Current  

Insurance  


$6,142.50 

$642.12 

7,321.44 

2,418.80 

4,107.24 

963.08 

4,046.20 

3,560.20 

248.20 

213.37 

6,600.00 

4,800.00 

2,461.50 

1,802.00 

1,950.00 

$30,267.58 


$17,009,07 


From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  average  cost  per 
year  for  his  electric  trucks  is  $708.71  as  against 
$1,780.44  apiece  for  his  gas  trucks. 

Mr.  McClellan,  General  IVlanager  of  the  Chal- 
mette  Laundry,  Ntw  Orleans,  has  stated  that  their 
47  electric  trucks  have  saved  them  nearly  $50,000 
compared  with  their  former  delivery — wagons  ^nd 
mules. 

It  is  a significant  fact  in  this  connection  that  the 
electric  truck  is  making  the  greatest  headway  where 
the  price  of  the  product  is  small,  and  the  margin  of 
profit  per  package  is  slight — the  baking  field,  the 
laundry  field,  dairy  field,  ice  cream,  etc. 

A large  baking  company  with  several  plants  bought 
about  a dozen  electric  trucks  for  one  plant  to  test 
out  whether  electrics  could  save  them  money.  As 
a result  of  their  experience,  they  authorized  a com- 
plete survey  of  their  other  plants — see  page  332. 

They  are  now  eliminating  all  horses-and-wagons 
and  are  replacing  a number  of  their  gas  trucks  with 
electrics,  shifting  these  gas  trucks  to  longer  routes. 

Even  in  the  milk  field,  electrics  are  displacing 
horses  because  electrics  save  both  time  and  money. 
The  fallacy  that  the  horse  that  knows  the  route 
saves  time  has  been  exposed  by  stop-watch  tests. 
The  Budd  Dairy  Company,  for  instance,  of  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  checked  the  electric  versus  the  horse 
knowing  the  route,  on  both  short-haul  and  long-haul 
routes  on  house-to-house  milk  delivery.  On  the 
long  routes  the  electric  saved  1^  hours  a day  and 
on  the  short  trips  15  minutes  a trip,  enabling  drivers 
to  do  approximately  20%  more  work.  Result — Budd 


331 


INVESTMENT  IN  DELIVERY  EQUIPMENT,  BUILDINGS, 
LAND,  ETC. 

Horse  and  Wagon — 

59  horses  and  54  wagons,  etc $34,830.65 

Land,  stable  and  equipment 28,458.12 


Total  investment  $63,288.77 

Gas  Truck — 

13  ton  chasses  $14,367.21 

Equipment  972.95 


Total  investment  $15i,340.16 

Grand  total  of  horse  and  gas  truck  investment $78,628.93 

Electric  Truck — 

63  chasses  $166,020.00 

Equipment  19,600.00 


Grand  total  electric  truck  investment $185,620.00 

YEARLY  COST  OF  OPERATION 
Horse  and  Wagon — 

Feed  or  rental $21,771.70 

Repairs  and  upkeep  34,176.49 

Interest  orn  investment 1,898.64 

Depreciation  6,476.15 

Insurance  331.25 

License  

Taxes  551.46 


Total  $65,205.69 

Ten  year  cost  $652,056.90 

Gas  Truck — 

Fuel  or  rental  $5,595.48 

Repairs  and  upkeep  11,923.89 

Interest  on  investment 460.13 

Depreciation  3,448.06 

Insurance  484.00 

License  203.28 

Taxes  107.36 


Total  $22,222f.20 

Ten  year  cost $222,222.00 

Electric  Truck — 

Energy  $8,358.00 

Cleaning  and  lubrication  817.20 

Repairs  and  upkeep 12,482.70 

Interest  on  investment 4,061.31 

Depreciation  8,664.67 

Insurance  614.08 

License  189.00 

Taxes  600.00 


Total  $35,786.96 

Ten  year  cost  $357,869.60 

Note — Figures  above  cover  54  horse  routes  and  11  gas 
routes,  which  were  replaced  by  63  electrics. 


332 


ESTIMATED  YEARLY  SAVING 


1.  Cost  of  the  part  of  the  present  equipment,  which  it  is 
recommended  to  be  replaced  by  electric  trucks. 

A.  Total  yearly  cost  of  horse  equipment  which  is 

recommended  to  be  replaced  by  electric  trucks $65,205.69 

B.  Cost  of  11  gas  truck  routes  recommended  to  be  re- 
placed by  electric  trucks $11,111.10 


Total  yearly  cost  $76,316.79 

2.  Total  estimated  yearly  cost  of  the  proposed  electric 

equipment  ' $35,786.60 


Total  estimated  yearly  saving  $40,530.19 

Saving  in  10  years  $405,301.90 


Dairy  Company  operates  18  electric  trucks  in  house- 
to-house  milk  delivery. 

One  may  ask  “How  can  the  electric  possibly  save 
time  under  such  conditions?'’  To  begin  with,  the 
electric  gets  to  and  from  the  route  in  less  time  than 
the  horse.  Secondly,  even  when  on  the  actual  de- 
livery route,  the  electric  saves  time  because  with  a 
horse-and-wagon  the  driver  walks  his  route  and 
the  time  it  takes  him  to  cover  it  is  the  time  it  takes 
him  to  walk  it.  With  the  electric,  he  drives  beween 
stops,  saving  considerable  time  over  the  horse  in 
half-block,  quarter-block  and  block  runs.  Inci- 
dentally, the  electric  starts  quicker  than  a horse  and 
gets  away  faster  and.  stops  quicker.  It  never  gets 
ahead  of  the  driver  when  he  needs  some  extra  cream 
or  extra  butter  or  eggs  as  a result  of  a note  found 
in  the  bottle.  The  electric  never  runs  away,  never 
chews  up  trees,  shrubbery,  etc. 

The  saving  in  time  and  money  together  are  suffi- 
ciently great  to  result  in  an  economy  equivalent  to 
between  2%  and  3%  of  a milk  dealer’s  business  per 
year.  If  he  is  averaging  say  10%  on  his  gross  vol- 


333 


tune,  this  saving  means  an  increase  in  profit  of  be- 
tween 20%  and  v30%. 

The  following  figures  of  an  analysis  on  house-to- 
house  milk  delivery  are  based  on  a plant  where  horse 
costs  were  unusually  favorable  and  yet  the  com- 
parison shows  the  electric  to  be  sufficiently  econom- 
ical to  save  a sum  equivalent  to  more  than  2j4%  of 
the  gross  volume. 

54  RETAIL  HORSE-DRAWN  ROUTES  (N) 


Feed  $41,273.76 

Wagons,  repair  and  painting 14,079.73 

Harness  3,268.15 

Shoeing  6,008.45 

Interest  on  investment,  3% 810.00 

*Depreciation  9,000.00 


Total  $74,440.09 

10  year  cost  of  horse  delivery $744,400.90 

44  ELECTRIC  TRUCKS  (N) 

Current  at  2>^c.  per  KWH $7,395.78 

Cleaning  and  lubrication  660.00 

Repairs  and  parts,  chassis 1,386.71 

Body  repairs  and  painting  4,752.00 

Battery  expense  10,807.92 

Tires  2,459.10 

Repairs,  building  or  rental  2,772.00 

**Interest  on  investment,  vehicles,  3% 2,545.30 

Interest  on  investment,  equipment,  3% 390.00 

**Depreciation,  vehicles,  10%  8,484.35 

Depreciation,  equipment,  5%  650.00 

Insurance  1,138  59 

License  176.00 

Garage  help  •. 7,200.00 


Total  $50,817.75 

10  year  cost  of  electric  delivery $508,177.50 


N — Greater  load  capacity  of  electrics,  greater  speed  and  consequent 
saving  in  time,  enables  44  electrics  to  do  work  of  54  horse  teams. 

*Horse  depreciation  at  20  per  cent,  stable  at  5 per  cent,  wagons 
at  10  per  cent,  harness  at  20  per  cent,  and  equ  pment  at  10  per  cent. 
Average  life  of  horse  is  figured  at  5 years,  although  in  New  York 
and  other  large  cities  the  average  is  4 years. 

**Less  tires  and  batteries. 

In  view  of  the  economy  of  the  electric  over  the 
horse  and  the  gas  truck,  why  is  it  that  it  is  not  uni- 
versally used  on  short-haul  city  routes  ? 

The  answer  is — ignorance.  Business  men  do  not 


334 


know  their  delivery  costs.  Any  l)usiness  man  who 
will  get  together  his  complete  delivery  costs  will  be 
astounded  at  the  total  cost  of  horses  and  wagons 
and  gas  trucks  on  city  routes.  In  the  dairy  business, 
for  instance,  delivery  is  costing  from  20c  to  25c  out 
of  every  dollar  the  dairyman  takes  in  and  sometimes 
more — including  interest,  depreciation,  and  main- 
tenance on  vehicles,  stable  buildings,  etc.,  operating 
costs,  insurance,  drivers’  salaries,  and  commissions, 
etc.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  efficiency  in  delivery, 
efifected  through  the  use  of  electric  trucks,  can  save 
a sum  equivalent  to  2%  or  of  a gross  business 
per  year,  thereby  increasing  profits  by  20%  to  30%  ! 

In  the  ice  cream  field,  delivery  is  costing  between 
20%  and  25% — and  sometimes  30%,  depending 
somewhat  on  how  the  ice  and  salt  are  figured. 

In  the  bakery  field,  delivery  is  ranging  from  18c 
to  25c  out  of  every  dollar. 

Laundry  delivery  is  costing  from  20c  to  30c  out 
of  each  dollar  the  laundry  owner  takes  in. 

In  the  department  store  field,  where  delivery  is  a 
much  smaller  per  cent,  of  gross  sales,  due  to  the 
greater  value  of  the  parcels  and  the  fact  that  nu- 
merous parcels  are  carried  home  or  sent  by  parcel 
post,  even  in  this  field  delivery  amounts  to  a stag- 
gering sum  in  dollars  and  cents. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  Harvard  Survey 
shows  that  department  store  profits  are  a very  small 
percentage  of  gross  sales — ranging  from  about  ^ of 
1%  up  to  about  3% — and  when  it  is  considered  that 
delivery  in  the  department  store  field  ranges  any- 
where from  ^ of  1%  up  to  3%  or  4% — it  will  read- 


335 


il\'  be  seen  that  inefficient  or  extravagant  delivery 
can  wipe  out  a department  store’s  profits. 

In  view  of  such  figures  as  these,  is  it  not  astound- 
ing that  the  average  business  man  does  not  know 
his  delivery  costs? 

It  is  particularly  astounding  when  there  is  such 
a simple  way  of  getting  at  the  facts.  Even  if  a con- 
cern hasn’t  kept  its  figures  on  delivery  properly,  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  get  to  the  bottom  of  the  sub- 
ject. On  pages  368  and  369  is  shown  a Cost  Analysis 
Form  arranged  in  three  columns,  one  for  horses,  one 
for  gas  trucks,  and  one  for  electric  trucks.  No  mat- 
ter how  a concern  has  kept  its  books — whether  it 
separates  its  delivery  or  not — ^-the  invoices,  checks 
and  cash  vouchers  are  in  the  bookkeeping  system  and 
the  bookkeeper  can  usually  get  the  figures  together 
in  a very  short  time  by  following  this  Cost  Analysis 
Form. 

When  these  figures  are  assembled  on  horse  deliv- 
ery and  gas  trucks  on  city  routes,  the  total  will  be 
a genuine  surprise  to  the  business  man  who  has  been 
wondering  why  his  overhead  is  so  high.  When  the 
yearly  cost  is  multiplied  in  each  case  by  10  or  15 
years — a period  long  enough  to  take  into  full  con- 
sideration the  life  of  the  electric  truck  versus  the 
much  shorter  life  of  horses  and  gas  trucks  on  fre- 
quent-stop routes,  the  possible  saving  through  the 
use  of  electric  trucks  will  pile  up  until  it  looks  like 
a mountain. 

If  every  business  man  in  this  country  would' have 
his  delivery  costs  assembled  on  a form  similar  to 
this  and  then  set  up  against  his  horse  or  gas  truck 


336 


costs  the  much  lower  cost  of  electric  trucks,  it 
would  bring-  iihout  a revolution  in  delivery  equipment. 

Instead  of  looking-  at  his  horse  costs  as  a question 
of  the  horse  itself,  the  wagon,  feed  and  shoeing  and 
a few  other  incidentals,  as  he  now  does,  he  would 
have  complete  figures — 40  odd  items  that  enter  into, 
horse  delivery  costs. 

Instead  of  depreciating  or  charging  ofif  horses, 
vehicles,  stables,  garages,  etc.,  through  a general  de- 
preciation fund,  by  charging  them  ofif  separately, 
each  according  to  its  proper  life,  he  will  get  a new 
viewpoint,  because  horses  and  gas  trucks  average 
only  5 years  on  frequent-stop  routes — the  cheap  light 
gas  trucks  are  trade  in  every  2 or  3 years — whereas 
electric  trucks,  built  to  last  more  than  10  years,  can 
be  safely  depreciated  at  10%  a year  as  against  20% 
on  horses  and  20%  to  33j^%  on  gas  trucks. 

Another  cost  item  that  is  worth  any  business  man's 
attention  is  that  of  stable  lands  and  buildings.  The 
horse  requires  two  to  three  times  the  space  of  an 
electric  truck  when  you  take  into  consideration  the 
space  required  by  the  wagon,  the  stall  for  the  horse 
and  the  horse's  share  of  the  hay  loft,  feed  room, 
harness  room,  etc.  Leading  bakers  and  others  have 
done  away  with  the  stable  or  garage  building  en- 
tirely, storing  &nd  charging  electric  trucks  right  at 
the  loading  platform. 

Another  economy  that  must  be  considered  is  the 
higher  efficiency  of  electric  trucks  in  days  in  service 
per  year.  Gas  trucks  are  out  of  service  from  30  to 
40  days  a year  including  repairs,  replacements,  tire 
changes,  revarnishing,  etc.  It  is  unusual  for  an  elec- 


337 


First — Figure  Your  Investment  in  Delivery  Equipment^  Buildings^  Land^etc. 


HORSE  AND  WAGON  GAS  TRUCK  ELECTRIC  TRUCK 


338 


Cost  of  Operation  (Continued) 


339 


trie  truck  to  be  out  of  service  half  this  long  even 
including  revarnishing. 

Fleet  performance  records  on  electrics  average 
higher  than  98%  days  in  service. 

This  higher  efficiency  of  the  electric  enables  a 
Imsiness  man  to  operate  his  delivery  with  fewer 
spare  vehicles  than  he  requires  if  he  uses  either 
gas  trucks  or  horses — because  we  all  know  that  the 
horse  must  have  his  rest  periods,  that  he  is  in  very 
bad  shape  after  severe  snows,  and  that  he  is  at  times 
indisposed  and  unable  to  work. 

Most  businesses  are  doing  a good  volume  today  in 
spite  of  lower  prices  for  products  and  services*  But 
profits  are  not  so  good — overhead  is  still  too  high. 

It  is  already  clearly  evident  that  wages  cannot  be 
brought  down  rapidly.  The  economies  must  be 
effected  somewhere  else — overhead  must  be  cut  in 
some  other  way.  Delivery,  often  the  biggest  over- 
head item,  offers  the  opportunity  to  reduce  overhead 
and  thereby  increase  profits. 

So  long  as  a business  man  looks  only  at  first  cost 
of  the  different  types  of  delivery  equipment,  he  will 
never  buy  electric  trucks  because  they  cost  more  to 
build  and  therefore  are  high-priced.  But  if  he  gets 
the  complete  story — first  cost  divided  by  the  years 
of  life,  and  the  much  lozver  operating  costs  on  elec- 
tric trucks,  it  will  be  immediately  clear  that  the 
economies  of  the  electric  are  so  great  that  they  wipe 
out  the  difference  in  first  cost  in  a jiffy,  and  from 
then  on  pay  profits.  In  fact,  the  statement  has  been 
made  and  proved  that  in  many  instances  if  a business 
had  got  its  stable  of  horses  or  its  original  gas  trucks 


340 


for  nothing,  it  could  not  afford  to  operate  them  com- 
pared with  electric  trucks  at  their  high  first  cost. 

The  business  man  who  continues  to  operate  horses 
oi  gas  trucks  because  of  the  smaller  investment  is 
burdening  his  business  with  a heavy  millstone  and 
may  even  be  placing  his  business  in  the  position 
where  delivery  may  make  the  difference  between  a 
profitable  and  an  unprofitable  business. 

In  the  keen  competition  of  today  and  with  the 
public  continually  demanding  lower  prices,  it  is  al- 
most fata-1  to  neglect  this  important  subject  of  de- 
livery. A business  man  may  have  an  honest  differ- 
ence of  opinion  at  the  start.  He  may  conscientiously 
believe  that  horses  and  gas  trucks  are  cheaper  for 
him  on  city  routes.  But  why  guess  ? Why  not  get 
the  facts  Why  not  set  up  his  horse  figures  and  gas 
truck  figures  in  the  way  suggested  here  and  then  set 
up  opposite  them  electric  truck-  figures,  including 
everything.  The  totals  will  speak  for  themselves ! 


ton  Electric  truck 


341 


INDEX  TO  CONTENTS 

Acid,  Addition  of 73 

Acid,  Specific  Gravity 75 

Active  Material,  Shedding  of 89 

Advantages  of  Electrics.. 5 

Ammeter 190 

Ampere-Hour  Meter  (Sangamo) 192 

Assembling  New  Batteries 51 

Axles  290 

Batteries,  Boosting  45 

Batteries,  Care  of 37 

Batteries,  Charging  17 

Batteries,  Lead,  Assembly 14 

Batteries,  Lead,  Care  of 43 

Batteries,  Lead,  Storage,  Description 13 

Batteries  Out  of  Service 47 

Batteries,  Remaining  idle 63 

Batteries,  Unpacking 49 

Battery  Cleaning,  Frequency  of 83 

Bearings  200 

Brakes  301 

Bridges,  Battery  22 

Capacity,  Loss  of 88 

Chains  and  Sprockets 3^ 

Charge  and  Discharge  Rates 25 

Charging  from  Central  Stations 182 

Charging  Apparatus  (A.  C.) 156 

Charging  Apparatus  (D.  C.) 140 

Charging,  Automatically  61 

Charging,  General  Rules 37 

Charging,  Manipulation  40 

Charging,  Out  of  the  Vehicle 41  & 68 

Charging,  Overnight  64 

Charging  Rates,  Tables 27-36 

Charging,  Starting  Rate 

Charging  Plugs 3LS 

Chassis,  Design  and  Care  of 

Cleanliness  of  Cells 57 

Controllers,  Construction  and  Care  of 2^4 

Cost  of  Operating  Electric  Trucks 330 

Difficulties  and  Their  Evasion 8/ 

Discharging  41 

Discharge,  Limit  of ^ 


342 


Edison  Storage  Batteries 121 

Edison  Batteries,  Care  and  Operation 130 

The  Electric  Storage  Battery  Co.,  Description  of 

Batteries  102 

Electrolyte  39 

Electrolyte,  Inspection  of 72 

Electrolyte,  Proper  Level 46 

Electrolyte,  Testing  of 56 

Emergency  Charging  66 

Equalizing  Charge  45&62 

Electric  Vehicle  Development. 3 

Gassing  44 

Gears,  Differential  294 

Goodrich  Silvertown  Cord  Tires 238 

Goodrich  Tire  Caliper 239 

Gould  Storage  Battery  Co.,  Description  of  Batteries.  107 

Hydrometer  25 

Indicators,  Mileage  and  Speed 219 

Inspection  of  Batteries 72 

Instruments,  Measuring  184 

Isolated  Charging  Plants 181 

Jars,  Adding  New  Ones 77 

Jars,  Battery  22 

Lead  Burning  24 

Lead  Burning  by  Hydrogen 95 

Lincoln  Chargers  I7S 

Maximum  Demand  Indicator 213 

Mercury  Arc  Rectifier 157 

Motors,  Construction  and  Care  of 262 

Motor  Generators  173 

Naked  Flame,  Danger 39 

Parts,  Mechanical,  Their  Upkeep 318 

Pasted  Plates  21 

Philadelphia  Storage  Battery  Co.,  Description  of 

Batteries  no 

Pilot  Cell  47 

Plates,  Corrosion  of 90 

Plates,  Lead  Battery 13 

Plates,  Reversal  of 89 

Pleasure  Vehicle  Progress 9 

Points  to  Be  Remembered 48 

Prejudice  Against  Electrics ii 

Resistance,  Water  70 

Rims  230 

Rotary  Converters  174 

Sediment  in  Batteries 82 


343 


Service  Charging  58 

Specific  Gravity  25 

Specific  Gravity  Temperature  Tables. 79 

Speedorneters  222 

Sprockets  and  Chains 320 

Springs  289 

Steering  Gear  297 

Storage  Batteries,  Alkaline  ( Edison ) 121 

Sulphation  18 

Sulphation,  Cause  of 88 

Suggestion,  Battery  Accessory 94 

Taking  Out  of  Commission 91 

Temperature,  Battery  Maximum 46 

Temperature  Effects  on  Plates 90 

Temperature  in  Charging 40 

Tires  231 

Tires,  Abrasion  247 

Tires,  Alignment  of 246 

Tires,  Care  of... 243 

Tires,  Carrying  Capacity  (Table) 245 

Tires,  Injury  from  Oil. 247 

Tires,  Inner  Tubes 260 

Tires,  Pneumatic,  Air  Pressure 254 

Tires,  Pneumatic,  Care  of ^..  253 

Tires,  Standing  Idle *..  253 

Tires,  Skidding  251 

Tires,  Vulcanizing 257 

Transmission  304 

Trays,  Battery  23 

U.  S.  Light  & Heating  Co.,  Description  of  Batteries  113 

Ventilation  39 

Voltage  of  Battery  During  Charging 60 

Voltage,  for  Charging 39 

Voltage,  Charge  and  Discharge 81 

Voltmeter  185 

Water,  for  Batteries 44 

Water,  Distilled  75 

Watt-Hour  Meters  217 

Wheels,  Rims  and  Tires 227 

Willard  Storage  Battery  Co.,  Description  of  Batteries  117 
Wiring  3^4 


344 


One  of.  the  19  Ward  Electrics  used  in  ice  cream 
delivery  by  the  Hydrox  Company,  Chicago. 

Ward  Electrics  save  20  to  35% 

Ward  Electrics  save  20%  to  35%  compared  with 
horses  and  wagons — and  usually  50%  compared  with 
gasoline  trucks  on  city  routes.  If  you  had  got  your 
horses  or  gas  trucks  for  nothing,  you  could  hardly  afford 
to  use  them  in  comparison. 

Ward  Electrics  last  10  years  and  longer.  Some  are 
still  operating  economically  after  15  years. 

These  efficient  trucks  dominate  in  delivery  fields  where 
the  unit  of  sale  is  low,  the  profit  small,  and  where  de- 
liveries must  be  made  in  spite  of  weather  conditions.  In 
the  bakery  business,  for  instance,  there  are  more  Ward 
Electrics  than  all  other  electrics  put  together  and  they 
outnumber  the  trucks  of  the  leading  gas  truck  maker 
nearly  5 to  1.  The  laundry  field  is  another  example. 

O.  H.  Geyer  & Son,  Dairy  owners,  Chicago,  say:  “We 
wouldn’t  go  back  to  horses  and  wagons  or  gas  cars  as 
a gift.” 

We  have  a book  that  will  make  any  executive  sit  up 
and  take  a new  look  at  the  delivery  problem.  It  is  free 
on  request. 

Ward  Motor  Vehicle  Co. 

Mt.  Vernon,  New  York 

6 Sizes : 750  Lbs.  to  5 Tons 


345 


IDW^T^TRUCKINGt 


(Load  Capacities, 

5^2,  1,  2,  354  and  5 Tons) 


Walker  Electric  Truck  Chassis  have  a 
profitable  life  of  ten  to  twenty  years  be- 
cause Walkers  are  of  Superior  design, 
workmanship  and  material. 

The  Walker  Balance  Drive 

is  over  95%  efficient  under 
all  operating  conditions 
throughout  entire  life. 

WALKER  VEHICLE  COMPANY 

America’s  Leading  Manufacturers  of  Electric  Road  Trucks 
CHICAGO 

New  York  Philadelphia  BuflFaJo  Boston 


346 


American  Railway  Express  Company  Operates  Many  WALKER 
Fleets  and  Continuously  buy  more.  WHY? 


Express  and  Transfer  Companies  sell 
transportation  for  profit.  The  predom- 
inance of  Walker  Electric  Trucks  in  this 
service  proves  that  Walkers  earn  the 
largest  profits. 

Walkers  are  profitable  for  about  8o%  of 
all  trucking  on  city  routes. 

Get  the  facts  from  any  Walker  user, 
branch  or  dealer.  Write  for  “PROEIT- 
ABLE  TRUCKING”  folder. 

WALKER  VEHICLE  COMPANY 

America’s  Leading  Manufacturers  of  Electric  Road  Trucks 
CHICAGO 

New  York  Philadelphia  Buffalo  Boston 


liCME^yTRUCKING-COST 


347 


r^r\S\T\  M INDUSTRIAL 
VwVyi-Vi>  TRUCKS-TRACTORS 

Originators  of  the  “through  ticket”  system  for  moving  loads 


COWAN 

ELECTRIC 


Self-Loading  Trucks 
Load  Carrying  Trucks 
Industrial  Tractors 
also  Hand  Lift  Trucks 


Cowan  Engineers  and  Representatives 
throughout  the  country  will  gladly  give 
advice  gained  through  long  experience 
in  solving  industrial  transportation 
problems.  Cowan  Bulletins  will  be 
sent  you  on  request. 


Cowan  Truck  Company 

4 Water  Street,  Holyoke,  Mass. 

New  York  Office,  Grand  Central  Palace 
Offices  in  Principal  Cities 

2030-N  


848 


i 


ELECTRIC  TRUCKS 


are  bought  today  by  truck 
users,  many  of  them  leaders 
in  their  field,  because  they  fit 
the  requirements  of  city  trans- 
portation in  nearly  eyery  line 
of  industry. 


Two  Motors  No  Differential 

In  the  C-T  Truck  each  driving 
wheel  has  its  own  power  plant  en- 
abling it  to  make  use  of  all  the  trac- 
tion available,  giving  greater  sim- 
plicity and  assuring  less  repairs, 
more  days  on  the  road  and  greater 
operating  economy. 

Capacities,  Bantam  (3^  ton)  to  5 tons 

Commercial  Truck  Company 

Philadelphia 


349 


NELA  park  is  a ‘'university  of  light,” 
dedicated  to  improvement  in  lamps  and 
progress  in  the  art  of  lighting.  It  serves  24 
factories,  17  Sales  Divisions  and  15,000  Deal- 
ers in  the  production  and  marketing  of  98  mil- 
lion National  Mazda  lamps  annually  for  use  in 
homes,  offices,  factories,  stores,  streets,  rail- 
ways, flashlights  and  automobiles. 


National  Lamp  Works 

of  General  Electric  Company 
Nela  Park  Cleveland,  Ohio 


350 


Approved  Standard  cf  the  Electric  I’ehicle  Section  of  the  N.  E.  L.  A. 
and  the  Electric  Vehicle  Committee  of  Great  Britain. 

AVOID  CHARGING  TROUBLES— WRITE  FOR  BULLETIN  33 

ALBERT  & J.  M.  ANDERSON  MFC.  CO. 

289-305  A Street,  Boston,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A. 

New  York  Chicago  Philadelphia 

35  Broadway  105  So.  Dearborn  St.  429  Real  Estate  Trust  Bldg. 
London,  England,  38-39  Upper  Thames  Street,  E.  C.  4 


SPECIFY  ANDERSON  STANDARD 

CHARGING  PLUGS 

and  RECEPTACLES 


351 


Low  platform  truc  ~ 
equipped  with  G-E 
automobile  type 
motor 

Opportunities  on  Wheels 


£AL«  economies  are  brought  to  factory  and  ware- 
house where  electric  trucks  and  tractors  are 
operated.  These  little  machines  in  industries  of  this 
country  to-day  are  helping  to  clear  the  where-to-reduce- 
expense  tangle. 

Fifty  tractors  each  with  twelve  trailers  handle  2,500 
tons  a day  in  a Chicago  plant  covering  thirty-nine  acres. 
Kach  train  paid  for  itself  in  one  year  by  its  economies. 

Tractors  and  trucks  in  a variety  of  types  equipped  with 
G-E  driving,  elevating  and  control  equipment  have 
proved  satisfactory  wherevei  used.  They» offer  every 
industry  expense-reducing  opportunities. 

Prominent  manufacturers  of  trucks  and  tractors  use 
G-E  motors  and  control  and  co-operate  with  the  ma- 
terial handling  specialists  of  the  General  Electric  Com- 
pany in  designing  and  building  the  most  improved 
machines. 


352 


Westinghouse 

Electric  Vehicle  Equipment 


Type  V-54  Vehicle  Motor 


From  the  inception  of  the  electric  vehicle,  Westinghouse  has 
assisted  in  its  successful  development  by  securing  the  services 
of  experts  to  design  and  manufacture  suitable  electrical  equip- 
ments, such  as  motors,  controllers,  cut-out  syv^itches,  charging 
receptacles  and  plugs,  and  Westinghouse  was  alsj  the  first 
manufacturer  to  build  this  equipment  in  quantities. 

The  salient  characteristics  of  Westinghouse  motors  marking 
their  suitability  for  applications  to  electric  vehicle:;  are  as  fol- 
lows : 


1.  Constructed  so  as  to  secure  maximum  strength 
with  the  simplest  arrangement  and  the  fewest 
parts. 

2.  Designed  to  commutate  the  heavy  currents  with 
minimum  sparking. 

3.  Available  for  either  60  or  80  volt  service. 

4.  High  efficiency  throughout  their  range  of  opera- 
tion. 

Westinghouse  vehicle  controllers  are  simple  in  design, 
rugged  in  construction  and  only  require  infrequent  re- 
newals of  contact  fingers  and  drum  segments. 
Westinghouse  early  recognized  the  influence  of  battery- 
charging equipments  on  the  extensive  use  of  elctrical 
vehicles.  Therefore,  a complete  line  of  battery -charging 
apparatus  has  been  developed  for  this  service,  compris- 
ing rheostats,  mercury  arc 
rectifiers,  motor-generator 
sets,  and  battery-charging 
switchboards. 


Type  XV-52 
Vehicle  Controller 


Westinghouse 
Electric  & Manufacturing 
Company 

East  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


353 


CHARGING  EQUIPMENT 

Constant  Current  and  Constant  Potential  Methods 


For  Industrial  Trucks,  Tractors, 
Locomotives  and  Street  Vehicles 

Each  section  is  a complete  unit 
carryingr  all  the  devices  assembled 
to  take  care  of  any  number  of  elec- 
trics. Additions  can  be  made  at 
small  cost.  Other  features  are 

Ease  of  Operation 
Low  Operating  Cost 
Low  Installation  Cost 
Durability 

Automatic  Protection 
Suitability  for  2-Wire 
or  3- Wire  Service 

Our  nearest  office  will  send  Publication  830 

Tlie  Gutler-Hammer  Mfg.  Co. 

MILWAUKEE  and  NEW  YORK 

New  York  Chicago  Pittsburgh  Boston 
Philadelphia  Cleveland  Cincinnati 
Pr.nel  of  six  C-H  Detroit  St.  Louis  Los  Angeles 

charging  sections  Seattle  San  Francisco 


354 


IRONCLAD 


BATTERIES 


For  Ppwer  and  Speed 
When  You  Need  Them  Most 

Power  to  carry  your  fully  loaded  truck ; good 
uniform  speed,  even  in  the  late  afternoon — that’s 
what  the  installation  of  the  Exide  Ironclad 
Battery  assures  you. 

For  this  dependable  battery — product  of  the 
oldest  and  largest  battery  manufacturers  in  the 
world — delivers  power  up  to 
20  times  its  normal  rate  when 
the  demand  arises. 

And  it  maintains  throughout 
its  complete  discharge,  a high 
voltage  that  assures  a good 
truck  speed  all  day  long. 

Bulletin  No.  182  tells  you 
more  about  this  battery^its 
long  life,  low  maintenance  cost 
and  extreme  ruggedness.  Write 
for  it. 

The  Electric  Storage 
Battery  Co. 

Oldest  and  largest  manufacturers 
in  the  world  of  storage  batteries 
for  every  pus*pose. 

PHILADELPHIA 

Branches  in  17  Cities 
Manufactured  in  Canada  by 

Exide  Batteries  of  Canada,  Limited 
133-157  Dufferin  Street,  Toronto 


355 


£du3<m. 

STOP ACE 

lDaTli^ij| 


The  Standard  Battery  for 

Electric  Vehicles 
Industrial  Trucks 
Industrial  Tractors 

The  only  Storage  Battery  with  any  iron  or 
steel  in  its  construction  or  elements. 

Full  information  on  request. 

EDISON  STORAGE  BATTERY  CO. 

147  Lakeside  Ave.,  Orange,  N.  J. 


356 


Electrical  Vehicles,  Trucks, 
Tractors 

Long  life  plates  plus  long  life  separators  is  the  vfery 
d,eslrable  combination  offered  in  the  Gould  Dread- 
naught  Battery. 

The  high  sustained  capacity  and  stubborn  resistance  to 
disintegration  of  Gould  Dreadnaught  Positive  Plates  are 
due  primarily  to  the  uniform  high  quality  cf  the  lead 
oxides  used  in  their  making.  Direct  and  sole  control  of 
the,  quality  of  the  oxide  is  made  possible  by  the  Gould 
Oxide  Plant.  No  other  battery  manufacturer  makes  his 
own  oxide. 

Lcng-life  is  again  assured  by  the  Gould  Armored  Sepa- 
rator— a long  life  wood  separator.  A patented  Gould 
process  of  rubberizing  the  wood  fibres  gives  the  separator 
a defensive  covering  that  is  immune  to  the  action  of  ac  d 
and  yet  does  not  impair  the  natural  porosity  of  the  sep- 
arator. 

Gould  Batteries  are  especially  constructed  to  meet 
specific  requirements  of  all  types  of  electr'c  vehicles, 
baggage  and  industrial  trucks  and  mine  locomotives. 


Gould  Storage  Battery  Co. 

General  Offices:  30  East  42nd  St.,  New  York 
Plant:  Depew,  N.  Y. 

CHICAGO  DETROIT  SAN  FRANCISCO 

HUNTINGTON  KANSAS  CITY 


357 


Acceptance 


are  of  value  in  assuring  the  quality  of  any  appa- 
ratus or  material  that  is  purchased  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  Laboratories  can  be  of  service  to  elec- 
tric vehicle  manufacturers  and  users  by  making 
tests  of 

Generators, 

Motors, 

Storage  batteries. 

Primary  batteries, 

Steel  and  other  construction 
materials. 

Battery  jars. 

Battery  electrolyte 

PHYSICAL,  ELECTRICAL  AND  CHEMI- 
CAL TESTS  IN  GENERAL. 

Tests  can  be  made  at  the  factories,  at  store- 
houses, under  operating  conditions,  or  at  the  lab- 
oratories of  this  Company  as  best  suits  your  con- 
venience. Our  facilities  are  at  your  service. 

Electrical 

Testing  Laboratories 

80th  St.  and  East  End  Avenue 
New  York,  N.  Y. 


358 


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MEh’ORANDA 
(/J  A-^ 

U^*  LO,  3 GA^  ^c>a/T^ 


MEMORANDA 


360 


